Unit 5-9 Life Science Comprehensive Exam Review

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards based on Unit 5 to Unit 9 lecture notes covering Evolution, Genetics, DNA, Biotechnology, Ecology, and Cellular Energetics.

Big Bang Theory

The theory that the universe began about $13.8$ billion years ago from a hot, dense point and expanded; atoms, stars, planets, and life formed over time.

Charles Darwin

Developed the theory of evolution by natural selection.

Galapagos Island Observation

Observation by Charles Darwin - finches had different beak sizes depending on which island they lived on.

Evolution

Process by which populations change over time.

Trait

An inherited characteristic.

Artificial selection

Process of selection controlled by humans.

Natural selection

The process by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

What are the 4 parts of natural selection?

• Overproduction – Organisms produce more offspring than can survive

• Genetic variation – Individuals in a species have different traits

• Selection – Organisms with helpful traits survive and reproduce

• Adaptation – An inherited trait that helps an organism survive and reproduce.

Overproduction

One of the $4$ parts of natural selection where more offspring are produced than can survive.

Genetic variation

One of the $4$ parts of natural selection involving naturally occurring differences in traits within a population.

Selection

One of the $4$ parts of natural selection where individuals with certain traits are more likely to survive and reproduce.

Adaptation

One of the $4$ parts of natural selection referring to an inherited trait that helps an organism survive and reproduce.

Extinction

Occurs when all members of a species have died.

Fossils

The remains or imprints of organisms from the past.

Fossil Dating Principle

The principle stating that deeper fossils are older.

Fossil record

A collection of all fossils showing the history of life.

Transitional fossil

A fossil showing traits of both ancestors and descendants.

Evidence of evolution: Common structures

One of the $3$ types of evidence for evolution involving shared physical traits across different species.

Evidence of evolution: Similar DNA

One of the $3$ types of evidence for evolution based on the genetic code sharing similar sequences.

Evidence of evolution: Developmental similarities

One of the $3$ types of evidence for evolution based on similarities during the growth stages of embryos.

Embryology

The study of how organisms develop.

Chromatin

DNA in its loose, uncoiled form.

Chromosomes

Tightly coiled DNA visible during cell division.

Cell Cycle Stages

The three main stages of a cell's life: Interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis.

Daughter cells

Two identical cells formed from one parent cell.

Prophase

The stage of mitosis where chromosomes condense.

Metaphase

The stage of mitosis where chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.

Anaphase

The stage of mitosis where chromosomes are pulled apart.

Telophase

The stage of mitosis where the nucleus reforms.

Homologous chromosomes

Pairs of chromosomes that are similar in size and contain the same genes.

Sex chromosomes

The $23rd$ chromosome pair, which is $XX$ in females and $XY$ in males.

Gametes

Sex cells, such as sperm and egg, containing half the chromosomes of a body cell.

Haploid

A cell containing one set of chromosomes ($23$ in humans).

Diploid

A cell containing two sets of chromosomes ($46$ in humans).

Mitosis

Cell division that produces two genetically identical daughter cells.

Meiosis

Cell division that produces gametes with half the number of chromosomes.

Fertilization

The process where a sperm and egg combine to form a zygote.

Zygote

The single cell formed by the fusion of two gametes.

Crossing over

The exchange of genetic material during Prophase $I$ of meiosis.

Nondisjunction

The cause of Down syndrome, involving an extra chromosome $21$.

Asexual reproduction

Reproduction involving one parent resulting in identical offspring.

Sexual reproduction

Reproduction involving two parents resulting in genetic variation.

Binary fission

A type of asexual reproduction where a parent cell divides into two equal parts.

Budding

A type of asexual reproduction where a new organism grows off the body of the parent.

Regeneration

A type of asexual reproduction where a piece of an organism grows into a whole new individual.

Vegetative propagation

A type of asexual reproduction in plants.

Gregor Mendel

The scientist who studied heredity using pea plants.

Heredity

The passing of traits from parents to offspring.

Genotype

An organism's genetic makeup.

Phenotype

An organism's observable physical traits.

Incomplete dominance

A genetic inheritance pattern where traits blend together.

Codominance

A genetic inheritance pattern where both traits are shown simultaneously.

Gene

A section of DNA that codes for a trait.

Allele

A specific version of a gene.

Sex-linked disorder

A disorder located on the $X$ chromosome.

Punnett square

A diagram used to predict the probability of genetic outcomes.

Pedigree

A family trait diagram where circles represents females and squares represent males.

DNA Shape

A double helix, often described as a twisted ladder.

Nucleotide

A building block of DNA and RNA made of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base.

DNA Bases

Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Guanine.

RNA Bases

Adenine, Uracil, Cytosine, and Guanine.

RNA

A molecule that helps make proteins using instructions from DNA.

Replication

The process of making a copy of DNA.

Helicase

An enzyme that unzips DNA so it can be copied during replication.

mRNA (messenger RNA)

RNA that carries protein-making instructions from the DNA.

rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

RNA that forms the structure of ribosomes.

tRNA (transfer RNA)

RNA that brings amino acids to the ribosome.

Transcription

The process of making mRNA from a DNA template.

Translation

The process of making proteins from an mRNA sequence.

RNA Polymerase

The enzyme that builds RNA from a DNA template.

Mutation

A change in DNA, which can be a deletion, insertion, or substitution.

Central Dogma of Biology

The flow of genetic information: $DNA \rightarrow RNA \rightarrow Protein$.

Biotechnology

The use of organisms to make products or solve problems.

GMO

An organism whose DNA has been changed using genetic engineering.

Genetic engineering

Changing an organism's DNA for use in research, medicine, agriculture, or industry.

Cloning

Making an exact genetic copy of an organism; can be natural or artificial.

Ecology

The study of how organisms interact with each other and their environment.

Biotic factors

The living parts of an ecosystem.

Abiotic factors

Nonliving parts of an ecosystem that affect living things and determine where organisms can survive.

Levels of Organization

Smallest to largest: Population, Community, Ecosystem, Biosphere.

Biome

A large region with a specific climate, plants, and animals, defined by temperature and rainfall.

Niche

An organism's specific role or job in its environment.

Producer

An organism that makes its own food.

Consumer

An organism that eats other organisms; includes carnivores, herbivores, and omnivores.

Decomposer

An organism that breaks down dead organisms and recycles nutrients (returns nutrients back into ecosystem)

Trophic Level Energy Transfer

The principle that only about $10\%$ of energy is passed through each level of a food chain.

Photosynthesis

The process in chloroplasts where plants use sunlight, $CO_2$, and water to make glucose and oxygen.

Cellular Respiration

The metabolic process cells use to convert glucose into usable energy ($ATP$).

ATP

The main energy-carrying molecule used by cells to power all activities.