Reproduction, DNA, and Polypeptide Synthesis Flashcards

Vocabulary terms and definitions covering sexual and asexual reproduction methods, hormonal control of pregnancy, agricultural manipulation, DNA storage, polypeptide synthesis, and protein structure.

Gametes

Cells produced by parent organisms through meiosis, containing half the necessary number of chromosomes.

Zygote

The cell produced by the fusion of male and female gametes, containing a combination of genetic material from both parents.

External fertilisation

A reproductive process occurring in a watery environment where a large number of gametes are produced, resulting in more offspring without the need for mating rituals.

Internal fertilisation

The fusion of egg and sperm in close proximity inside the body, leading to an increased likelihood of fertilisation and higher survival rates for offspring.

Pollination

The process where male gametes (pollen) are produced and transferred to female ovules, often assisted by wind or insects.

Vegetative propagation

A form of asexual reproduction in plants involving the development of new individuals from multicellular structures that detach from the parent plant.

Plasmogamy

A stage in fungal sexual reproduction where two genetically different cells fuse together.

Karyogamy

The stage in fungal sexual reproduction where the nuclei of two fused cells fuse together.

Fragmentation

A form of asexual reproduction in fungi where pieces of hyphae separate to become new colonies.

Binary fission

The main form of reproduction in bacteria where a single cell replicates its DNA and divides into two identical daughter cells.

Horizontal Gene Transfer (HGT)

The transfer of genetic material between bacteria, often via plasmids, allowing for genetic variation despite asexual reproduction.

Implantation

The stage of reproduction when a fertilised egg adheres to the wall of the uterus.

Endometrium

The nutrient-dense lining of the uterus that provides oxygen and nutrients to the growing embryo.

Chorionic gonadotrophin ($hCG$)

A hormone produced for the first $10$ weeks of pregnancy responsible for thickening the uterine lining and triggering the release of oestrogen and progesterone.

Progesterone

A hormone produced by the corpus luteum and placenta that strengthens the uterine lining, provides nutrients for the embryo, and relaxes the uterus to prevent early labour.

Oestrogen

A hormone that helps grow the uterine lining, assists in fetal organ growth, and works with progesterone to develop milk ducts.

Selective breeding

A process in agriculture where humans selectively mate plants or animals with desirable phenotypic traits to ensure those traits are inherited.

Genetic engineering

The manipulation of organisms at a fundamental level through techniques like gene cloning and transgenics to introduce desired traits.

Histones

Small proteins around which eukaryotic DNA is wound tightly to condense it into supercoils and chromosomes.

Plasmids

Small, extra-chromosomal circular segments of DNA found in prokaryotes that can be transferred horizontally.

Transcription

The process of turning genetic information stored in DNA into an intermediary messenger RNA ($mRNA$) molecule.

RNA polymerase

An enzyme that binds to a promoter sequence, unwinds DNA, and matches complementary nucleotides to synthesize an $mRNA$ strand.

Splicing

The editing of an $mRNA$ molecule where introns are removed and exons are kept to form the final message.

Translation

The process of turning information encoded as $mRNA$ into a polypeptide chain by ribosomes.

Codon

A group of three nucleotides in an $mRNA$ sequence that is read by a ribosome to determine a specific amino acid.

Genotype

The complete genome or genetic make-up of an organism.

Phenotype

The outward appearance of an organism, including observable traits, biochemistry, and physiology, often influenced by the environment.

Amino acids

The building blocks of proteins, consisting of a central carbon, an amine group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen, and a variable R-group.

Tertiary structure

The level of protein structure where folding occurs due to interactions between R-groups, determining the protein's specific function.

Enzymes

Proteins that function as biological catalysts, carrying out chemical reactions such as DNA replication and energy production.