All functionalist theories of religion

Civil religion - Bellah (1991; 2013)

• Belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself

• E.g. 🇺🇸 - ‘Americanism’ (faith in the ‘🇺🇸 way of life’) - nationalism replaces religion

• More unifying than any Church as claims the loyalty of all 🇺🇸 in a multi-faith society

2 functions of American civil religion

1. Sacralisation of the ‘American way of life’

2. Assurance of social cohesion across ethnic and religious backgrounds

4 features of American civil religion

1. Loyalty to the nation-state

2. Being a ‘true’ American

3. Belief in an ‘American God’

4. 4th July

4 rituals in American civil religion

1. Pledge of allegiance to the flag

2. National anthem

3. Lincoln memorial

4. ‘One Nation under God’

Functional alternatives - Bellah (1991; 2013)

• Non-religious beliefs/practices similar to those of an organised religion

  • Reinforce shared values

  • Maintain social cohesion

Example of functional alternatives

• Nazi Germany, Soviet Union

  • Secular beliefs and rituals that unite society

CRITICISM of civil religion and functional alternatives

• Ignore what sets religion apart- a belief in the supernatural

Durkheim (1915; 1962) - 1 role of religion and consequence of this

• Make us feel part of something greater than ourselves

  • Therefore invigorates and miotivates us to overcome obstacles we couldn’t otherwise

Durkheim (1915; 1962) - three major functions of religion

1. Social cohesion

2. Social control

3. Sense of purpose

Durkheim (1915; 1962) - 3 key features of religion

1. Sacred/profane distinction

2. Totems

3. Collective rituals/practices surrounding the sacred

The profane (2)

1. No special significance

2. Mundane

The sacred

• Set apart

• Forbidden

• Inspire awe and fear

• Surrounded by taboos or prohibitions

• Unite believers into a single moral community

• Symbols of something representing a higher power (e.g. ✝, ✡️)

Worshipping the sacred = worshipping society

• The only thing powerful enough to evoke such feelings is society

  • Therefore worshiping sacred things is actually worshipping society

Totem

• Symbol of a religion

  • Symbolises origins and identity

Totem(ism)

• Worshipping a totem = worshipping society (although those who do are not aware)

• Inspires feelings of awe in the members because it represents the power of the group

  • Individuals are dependent on the group, hence its power

Arunta clan (Australia)

• Consists of bands of kin

• Periodically meet to perform rituals

  • E.g. workship of a sacred totem, the clan’s emblem

Collective conscience

• Shared norms/values/beliefs/knowledge that facilitate social life and cooperation

  • Represented by sacred symbols

  • Maintained by regular shared religious rituals

    • These strengthen the bonds between us

    • Remind individuals of the power of society

• Lack of collective conscience = disintegration of society

Durkheim and Mauss (1903; 2009) - cognitive functions of religion

• Creation of categories

• Categories = numbers, space, time, cause, substance

  • Categories are needed to think

    • To share thoughts, we need to have the same categories as others

• Categories provided by religion = human thought, reason, science

  • Without categories, the creation story etc. would not be able to be told and understood

    • E.g. the Creator (substance) created the world (substance) at the beginning of time (time)

• Division of clans into tribes = first classification

CRITICISM of Durkheim’s sacred and profane - Worsley (1956)

• Lack of sharp division between the two

  • E.g. a teapot may be sacred in one culture but not another

CRITICISM of Durkheim’s totemism - Worsley (1956)

• Different clans share the same totems

CRITICISM of Durkheim’s collective conscience - Mestrovic (2011) (post modernist)

• Applicability to contemporary society

• Increasing diversity has fragmented the collective conscience

  • There is no longer one single shared value system for religion to enforce

Malinowski (1954) view on Durkheim (1915; 1962)

• Agrees that religion promotes social solidarity

Malinowski (1954) - 2 situations in which religion performs psycological functions

1. When a situation has an important but uncontrollable outcome

2. During times of life crisis

• Performs these psychological functions to allow people to cope with stress

  • Prevents social solidarity being undermined

…when a situation has an important but uncontrollable outcome — role of rituals

• Tension produced due to lack of control over important thing

• Rituals performed serve as ‘god of the gaps’ by filling gaps in human control

• When people can rely on their own skills = no occurrence of rituals

  • People have control over the outcome and don’t need divine intervention 

…when a situation has an important but uncontrollable outcome — example

• Frobirand Islanders

  • Ocean fishing is more unpredictable than lagoon fishing

    • Pre-ocean fishing = performance of ‘canoe magic’ rituals

…during times of life crisis

• Life crisis = times of big change

  • Marriage, birth, death, puberty

• Religion = minimisation of disruption to lives

…during times of life crisis example

• Funeral rituals enforce solidarity among survivors

• Notions of immortality comfort the survivors by denying death

Main reason for existence of religion

Death

Parsons (1967) - 2 additional functions for religion

• Agrees with Malinowski r.e. coping with unforeseen circumstances

1. Creation and legitimisation of society’s central values

2. Provision of the primary source of meaning

…creation and legitimisation of society’s central values

• Religion sacralises society’s central values

• E.g. 🇺🇸 core values: individualism, meritocracy, self-discipline

  • These are sacralised by Protestantism

• 🇵🇱 = Catholicism

…provision of the primary source of meaning (3)

1. Religion provides answers to existential questions like ‘why do good people suffer’

• Suffering = go to heaven

2. Events like a young person dying make life feel meaningless

• Undermines our commitment to society’s values

3. Religion provides answers, acting as a mechanism of adjustment

• We adjust to adverse events and therefore society’s stability is maintained