IB PSYCH social responsibility 2

bystanderism

phenomenon where individuals do not help people in emergency situations.

factors that influence the likelihood of being a bystander-

SIT- formation of identity within a social group (social categorization, social identification, social comparison and positive distinctiveness- individuals behave more favorably towards in-group) and diffusion of responsibility (when the presence of multiplied people leads individuals to believe that someone else will assume responsibility over a situation)

Latane and Darley (1968)

diffusion of responsibility

59 females and 30 males had a discussion with a professor (confederate) over the intercom.

participants were on a call with a professor (a confederate) on the intercom.

C1: 1 participant, 1 confederate

C2: 2 participants, 1 confederate

C3: group of participants, 1 confederate

confederate began pretending to have a seizure. speed of helping behaviour and number of students who helped was measured.

C1: 85% of student helped

C2: 64% of students helped

C3: 31% of students helped

clear negative correlation between number of people present and students who helped.

individuals refrain from helping in the presence of a group because they believe someone else will help- supports d.o.r as a factor influencing bystanderism

evaluation-Latane and Darley

construct validity- bystanderism was operationalized by whether or not participants helped.

3 conditions for comparison- inc int val and isolates IV- helps establish cause-and-effect relationship

applications- any emergency situation in a public place- eg: medical emergency at office

repeatable- reliable

sufficient sample size- inc reliability

low predictive power- emergency situations don't regularly happen over the phone (decreases ecological validity). difficult to determine p's reaction if it were face-to-face

twice as many females to males- gender bias

correlation not causation

levine et al (2005)

45 male Manchester United football club fans filled out questionnaire about their favourite football club and why and their feelings towards the opposite team that raised their in-group membership.

were asked to talk to another building where they saw a confederate who was jogging trip and fall and yell out in pain

C1: Manchester United t-shirt

C2: liverpool (strong rival of Manchester United) t-shit

C3: plain t-shirt (control)

results-Levine

significantly more likely (92%) to help person in Manchester United t-shirt

no significant difference between plain t-shirt and Liverpool t-shirt

evaluation-Levine

multiple conditions for comparison

questionnaire raised feeling of in-group membership so they could behave accordingly to their in-group.

high ec val- saw someone fall in the street- realistic. questionnaire was not.

applications to emergency situation where there is an in-group and an out-group

repeatable- reliable

quantitative data

operationalized bystanderism as number of people who don't help/ are bystanders

int val- no way of knowing if they actually saw the t-shirts + participants variables- some may have been more prosocial than others + could have been d.o.r

all males

low generalisability- specific in-group. and out group + low cultural generalisability- many cultures may not experience the same tribalism in football groups

social responsibility

moral motivation and obligation to help others

prosocial behaviour

voluntary actions intended to help others

altruism

when individuals help others at the cost of their own

evolutionary psychologists

this poses a problem for evolutionary psychologists because it does not fit in with a key concept of evolution: survival of the fittest

their explanation

to explain this, they have come up with the theory of inclusive fitness. according to this theory, helping others in your gene pool increases the chance of passing down genes in said gene pool.

hardwired- marsh (2014)

correlation between extreme altruists and volume of amygdala (brain structure responsible for processing emotion)

19 extreme altruists who donated their kidneys to complete strangers and 20 controls who matched for IQ, education, income, psychological background and medication use.

3 stages

stages

1- emotion recognition task- participants pressed a button to indicate people's emotions from pictures of their facial expressions while they were in an fMRI machine.

2- MRI to determine brain structure

3- levels of empathy and psychopathy were assessed

results and eval-Marsh

right amygdalas of altruists were larger in volume

supports hardwired theory

supports biological explanation for prosocial behaviour

had control group for comparison

not repeatable-reliable because this is a rare sample

sample was not necessarily representative of all altruistic people, it is possible to be altruistic and not donate an organ- decreases generalizability and internal validity

warneken et al (2007)

compared altruistic behaviour in 22 18 month old toddlers 18 and chimpanzees.

chimp condition- researchers looked at/reached for a stick that was out of their reach. the chimpanzees had to climb 2.5 meters so I was the cost of their own

human condition- researchers dropped a pen then looked at it/ reached for it. toddlers had to cross a small obstacle course to help- at their own cost

results and link- Warnekien

both subjects helped over 50% of the time

chimps took longer to understand but helped at the same frequency.

the fact that chimpanzees, which are more primitive and more strong affected by survival of the fittest, helped, suggests this behaviour is hardwired. the fact that children behaved this way too I in like with evolutionary theory that we all evolved from the same cell and share characteristics with organisms were genetically similar to.

Evaluation-Warneken

easily replicable- reliable

highly controlled- fewer extraneous variables- more International validity

including chimpanzees supports that prosocial behaviour isn't a result of societal factors because chimpanzees are unlikely to be affected by them.

chimpanzees do not pass down genes in their gene pool when they help people

low generalizability of behaviour in chimpanzees to humans

possible that prosocial behaviour in toddlers was enculturated earlier on from different studies.

having participated in earlier studies and been rewarded for helping behavior might have encouraged the prosocial behavior, decreasing internal validity

correlation not causation

lacks ecological validity

doesn't consider cultural factors of altruistic behaviour

empathy-altruism model

used to explain altruistic behaviour

ppl experience empathy and compassion (leads to altruistic behaviour) or stress (leads to egoistic behaviour) when they see someone in distress.

toi and Batson

64 volunteer female undergraduates from intro psych

listened to fictive interview about a carol Macey who was hit by a car and broke her leg and was having trouble catching up with lectures.

IV 1: level of empathy- half were told to listen objectively (low empathy) and half told to put themselves in her shoes (high empathy)

IV2: how costly it would be to not help- half were told she'd attend class the following week (high cost- they'd experience discomfort if she knew they chose not to help) and half told she wouldn't return to class (low-cost- wouldn't have to confront her)

after listening to interview, participants were asked if they could help Carol catch up on missed lectures.

results- Toi and Baston

high empathy- helped regardless of cost- truly empathy that. led to helping, not fear of discomfort

low empathy- helped more in high cost- no empathy= motivation to help is fear of discomfort

evaluation-Toi and Batson

lab- highly controlled- fewer extraneous variables

standardised- replicable- reliable

different conditions increased int val by isolating IV

applications of promoting prosocial behaviour by encouraging empathy in society

low ecological validity

flawed int val- no way of insuring p's experiencing the level of empathy they were supposed to

females only- lacks generalisability

negative-state relief model

prosocial behaviour is motivated by the desire to reduce discomfort experienced from the distress of someone else

promoting prosocial behaviour

promoted through learning through observation (SCT) and programs, such as anti-bullying programs.

research in this field focuses on the effectiveness of these methods

Sparfkin et al

prosocial behaviour could be promoted through the observation and imitation of a model (SCT).

-whether watching television content that portrays prosocial behaviour can promote it

children watch episode of Lassie. G1: neutral episode. G2: prosocial episode- Lassie helps puppies in need.

then they were put in a situation where they could help puppies and the researchers measured whether or not they helped.

results, link and evaluation sprafkin

children in prosocial condition were more likely to help.

suggests prosocial behaviour can be promoted through the observation and imitation of a model on television

standardized- easily replicable- reliable

high ec val- watching TV and helping animals- realistic

construct validity- prosocial behaviour was operationalized in a quantifiable manner by whether they helped or not

study can be used to assume that video games can also promote prosocial behaviour

control group for comparison

focuses on helping dogs not humans- less predictive power for helping humans

culturally biased- children from predominantly white neighborhood- cultural values may influence prosocial behaviour and the influence of television

exposed to needy puppies right after watching the show- could just be imitating- dec int val

construct validity- difficult to measure prosocial behaviour

reduces prosocial behaviour to helping animals in need

participant variables- could have been enculturated to behave that way so it wasn't the effect of the show.

What is the Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis?

It posits that when a person feels empathy for another, they are more likely to help them.

How does empathy differ from sympathy?

Empathy involves understanding how another person feels, while sympathy is feeling sorry for them without understanding their experience.

What was the aim of Batson et al.'s (1981) study?

To test the empathy-altruism hypothesis.

What was the main finding regarding high empathy in Batson et al.'s study?

Higher empathy increased the likelihood of participants switching places with Elaine, even without personal gain.

What were the results of Batson et al.'s study for high empathy with ease of escape?

91% of participants switched places.

What were the results of Batson et al.'s study for low empathy with difficult escape?

62% of participants switched places.

What does the Arousal-cost-reward model suggest?

It suggests that individuals weigh the costs and benefits of helping before deciding to assist.

What emotional responses can create arousal in bystanders?

Responses can include fear, disgust, sympathy, etc.

What was the aim of Piliavin et al.'s (1969) study?

To study how situational factors influence prosocial behavior.

What were the two scenarios participants observed in Piliavin et al.'s study?

A man with a cane who appeared ill and a man who appeared drunk.

What was the overall percentage of spontaneous help in Piliavin et al.'s study?

78% of the time someone helped spontaneously.

What was the median response time for helping the cane victim?

5 seconds.

What was the median response time for helping the drunk victim?

109 seconds.

Why did participants take longer to help the drunk victim?

The perceived costs of helping a drunk were greater, as it could cause disgust or embarrassment.

What is diffusion of responsibility?

It is the phenomenon where individuals feel less compelled to help when others are present.

In what situation did Piliavin et al. find no diffusion of responsibility?

In the cane-carrying situation, where the cost of not helping was high.

What factors can increase arousal in bystanders?

Empathy, proximity, and the length of time the emergency lasts.

What can reduce arousal in bystanders?

Helping, seeking help, leaving the scene, or deciding the person doesn't need help.

What was a key conclusion from Batson et al.'s study?

Higher empathy leads to increased likelihood of helping, regardless of personal gain.

What type of sample did Piliavin et al. use in their study?

An opportunity sample of New York subway travelers.

What were the independent variables in Piliavin et al.'s study?

Type of victim (drunk or ill) and size of the group.

What were the dependent variables in Piliavin et al.'s study?

Frequency of help, speed of help, sex of helper, movement away from the victim, and verbal comments.

What is the negative state relief model?

It suggests that people help to alleviate their own negative emotions.

How does the wealth of a country influence prosocial behavior?

Wealthier countries tend to have higher rates of helping behavior.

What is one factor that could influence whether we help others?

The population density, which can lead to diffusion of responsibility.

What did participants in Batson et al.'s study use to manipulate empathy?

A personality questionnaire indicating similarity to Elaine.

What is the significance of the 'model-helper' in Piliavin et al.'s study?

The model-helper offered assistance if no one else did, influencing the response of bystanders.

What is prosocial behavior?

Any action done for the benefit of another individual or group, often planned with the goal of making a difference.

What is altruism?

Doing something without hope or expectation of any type of reward or benefit for oneself; unselfish interest in helping.

What are the two types of altruism?

Biological altruism and psychological altruism.

What does Kin Selection Theory propose?

The degree of altruism depends on the genetic similarity of the individuals in the group; closer genetic relationships increase the likelihood of helping.

What is the Arousal-cost-reward Model?

A theory suggesting that individuals weigh the costs and benefits of helping others, influenced by emotional arousal.

What role does the amygdala play in prosocial behavior?

The amygdala is responsible for recognizing fear in others and is linked to compassion and altruism.

What did Warneken and Tomasello (2006) find about infants and altruism?

Infants have a natural tendency to help others solve problems, even without rewards.

What did Rachlin and Jones (2008) discover about social distance and altruism?

People are more likely to help close relatives than distant relatives or non-relatives.

What is the significance of the study by Marsh et al. (2014) on altruists?

It found that extraordinary altruists have greater amygdala volume and reactivity, suggesting a biological basis for their altruistic behavior.

What is the impact of social norms on prosocial behavior?

Consensus and social norms can promote prosocial behavior by creating expectations for helping others.

What is the difference between biological and psychological altruism?

Biological altruism is based on evolutionary explanations, while psychological altruism involves emotional responses to others' suffering.

What are some motivations for engaging in prosocial behavior?

Empathy, ego, reducing guilt, or expecting something in return.

What is the role of group membership in prosocial behavior?

Group membership can influence the likelihood of helping behaviors, as individuals may feel a stronger obligation to help those within their group.

What are ethical considerations in studying human relationships?

Researchers must ensure informed consent, confidentiality, and minimize harm to participants.

What did Warneken et al. (2007) find in their follow-up study on infants and chimpanzees?

There was no difference in helping behaviors between infants and chimpanzees, suggesting a shared evolutionary trait.

How does personal distress affect helping behavior?

Personal distress can lead to egotistical helping, where the helper acts to alleviate their own anxiety rather than out of concern for others.

What is the significance of the 'selfish gene' theory proposed by Dawkins?

It suggests that the goal of genes is to be passed on, influencing altruistic behavior towards close relatives.

What is the relationship between prosocial behavior and happiness?

Engaging in prosocial behavior is positively related to happiness and life satisfaction.

What is the impact of authority on compliance in prosocial behavior?

Authority figures can influence individuals to engage in prosocial behaviors through compliance.

What is the role of culture in prosocial behavior?

Cultural norms and values can shape the expectations and behaviors associated with helping others.

What is the significance of the study by Eisenberg and Miller (1987)?

It explored the relationship between empathy and prosocial behaviors, highlighting the importance of emotional responses.

What is the conclusion of the study on psychopaths and amygdala activity?

Psychopaths exhibit reduced amygdala activity and volume, which correlates with a lack of prosocial behavior.

What are the three phases of the Warneken and Tomasello (2006) study?

1. Emotion recognition task; 2. MRI for brain structure; 3. Tests for psychopathy and empathy.

What is the importance of recognizing nonverbal distress cues?

Recognizing cues like facial expressions of fear can elicit compassion and altruistic responses.

What was the main finding of Hofling's 1966 study?

21 out of 22 nurses complied with an order to administer a fictitious drug from an unknown doctor over the phone.

In Bickman's 1974 study, what factor influenced compliance rates?

The clothing worn by the person requesting compliance; actors dressed as guards had the highest compliance rates.

What effect did prosocial media content have on children's behavior according to Sprafkin et al. (1975)?

Children who watched prosocial content were more likely to help puppies in a subsequent opportunity.

What was the outcome of Greitmeyer and Osswald's 2010 study on video games?

Participants who played a prosocial video game were more likely to intervene in a situation of aggression compared to those who played a neutral game.

How can social norms encourage prosocial behavior?

Changing social norms can increase helping behavior, as shown by Beaman et al. (1978) where students who saw a film about helping were more likely to assist in a staged emergency.

What did Staub's 1979 study suggest about empathy training?

Empathy can be learned through community service, leading to increased helping behavior in children.

What are the six principles of persuasion according to Cialdini?

Authority, Reciprocity, Commitment and Consistency, Consensus (Social Proof), Liking, and Scarcity.

What is the difference between descriptive social norms and informational social influence?

Descriptive social norms reflect typical behavior patterns, while informational social influence occurs when individuals look to others for guidance in uncertain situations.

What was the aim of Cialdini et al.'s 2008 study on hotel towel usage?

To investigate the effect of descriptive social norms on compliance regarding towel reuse among hotel guests.

What were the results of Cialdini et al.'s study on towel reuse?

Guests who received descriptive social norm cards reused towels at a rate of 48%, compared to 38% for those with informational cards.

What conclusion can be drawn from Cialdini et al.'s study?

Descriptive social norms lead to higher rates of compliance than informational messages.

What is compliance in the context of social influence?

Compliance is a change in behavior requested by another person, often influenced by social norms and authority.

How did empathy training affect children's behavior in Feshbach & Feshbach's 1982 study?

Empathy-trained children were less aggressive and more likely to intervene in bullying situations compared to control groups.

What role does authority play in compliance?

People are more likely to comply with requests from individuals perceived as having authority.

What is the significance of consensus in promoting prosocial behavior?

Consensus, or social proof, influences behavior by showing individuals what others are doing, especially in uncertain situations.

What did Beaman et al. (1978) find regarding the impact of viewing a helping film?

Students who viewed a film about helping were significantly more likely to help in a staged emergency compared to those who did not.

What is the impact of community service on empathy according to Staub?

Engaging in community service can foster empathy and increase the likelihood of helping others.

What are the implications of Cialdini's principles of persuasion for promoting prosocial behavior?

Understanding and applying these principles can enhance strategies for encouraging individuals to engage in prosocial actions.

What is the relationship between social norms and helping behavior?

Social norms can significantly influence helping behavior; changing these norms can lead to increased prosocial actions.

How did the clothing of the actor in Bickman's study affect compliance?

Actors dressed as guards received the highest compliance rates compared to those dressed as civilians or milkmen.

What does the term 'prosocial behavior' refer to?

Prosocial behavior refers to actions intended to benefit others, such as helping, sharing, or cooperating.

What was the main finding of the study by Greitmeyer and Osswald regarding video games?

Playing prosocial video games increased the likelihood of individuals intervening in aggressive situations.

What did the study by Sprafkin et al. (1975) reveal about children's behavior after watching prosocial content?

Children exposed to prosocial media were more inclined to help others in need.

What is the significance of the Milgram experiment in understanding obedience?

The Milgram experiment highlighted the extent to which individuals are willing to obey authority figures, even when it involves causing harm to others.