Geography - yr 9

Name the 3 sectors water is used in. Give an example for each.

Domestic sector, the water we use at home, agricultural sector, the water that farmers use on their fields and industrial sector, water that’s used in factories.

What percentage of the world is composed of water?

70% of the world.

What percentage of the water all around the world is saltwater?

97% is saltwater.

What percentage of the water all around the world is freshwater?

3%

Of all the freshwater where are they found and what is their percentage?

69% of fresh water is stored as ice, 30% is groundwater and 1% is found in rivers and lakes.

What is the hydrological cycle?

A continuous process that refers to the movement of water between the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere. Surface water evaporates through the heat of the sun so as to form water vapour. As water vapour rises in the atmosphere, this cools and forms clouds. When clouds hold enough water, precipitation occurs in the form of rain, snow, etc. This water forms surface water in rivers, valleys, lakes, the sea and is stored in rocks or the process of transpiration repeats itself.

Transpiration

The process of water evaporation from plants.

Condensation

When water vapour is turned back into water droplets as it cools down, cloud formation.

Precipitation

When water droplets get bigger and heavier, they start to fall as rain, snow, etc.

Evaporation

The process where water is changing into gas.

Where is 45% of our drinking water obtained?

From Maltese groundwater.

Porous rocks

The rock contains pores and water passes through the pores.

Pervious rocks

Water passes through the cracks.

Permeable rocks, give examples.

Allows water pass through. Upper coralline limestone, greensands, blue clay, globigerina limestone, lower coralline limestone.

Impermeable rocks, give an example.

Does not allow water pass through. Blue clay.

What are the 5 layers of Maltese rocks, put them in order.

Upper Coralline Limestone, Greensands, Blue Clay, Globigerina Limestone, Lower Coralline Limestone.

Name the usage of 2 types of maltese layer of rock.

Coralline limestone, it’s used in the production of concrete and lime. Globigerina limestone, it’s cut into building blocks.

What are the 2 underground water supplies?

The perched aquifer and the mean sea level aquifer.

How is the 2 underground water supplies in Malta formed?

By rainwater, which seeps into the cracks of the rocks and this water infiltrates the pores of the rocks where it later forms the underground water supplies.

Perched aquifer (water table)

The upper coralline limestone is at the rock surface and rainwater infiltrates this layer and the greensands but does not pass through the blue clay as it’s impermeable, keeping the rainwater to not infiltrate the rocks beneath it. So the rainwater will settle on the blue clay forming the perched aquifer. The greater the rainfall the higher the percolation and the thicker the perched aquifer will be.

Importance of Malta’s perched aquifers to biodiversity, ecology and agriculture.

They provide small but reliable sources of freshwater in an island with very limited rainfall. These aquifers feed springs and seepages that create rare moist habitats, supporting a wide range of plants, insects, amphibians, and birds, which increases Malta’s biodiversity. Ecologically, perched aquifers help maintain the health of valleys and riparian ecosystems, keeping soils moist, reducing erosion, and sustaining vegetation throughout the year. They are also vital for agriculture, as farmers have traditionally depended on spring water from perched aquifers to irrigate crops, especially during the long dry summer months. In a semi‑arid country like Malta, perched aquifers play a crucial role in supporting natural ecosystems and ensuring the survival of local farming.

Mean sea level aquifer.

The Globigerina limestone and lower coralline limestone are at the rock surface, water infiltrates the rock pores and cracks in these layers until it forms the natural underground water supplies in the rocks at sea level. Fresh water which is stored in these layers does not mix together with the salty sea water since freshwater from the rain have different densities, and since the fresh water forms the mean sea level aquifer so the freshwater always stays on top of sea water.

Impact of scarcity of rainfall and aquifer depletion on the Maltese environment

Scarcity of rainfall and the depletion of Malta’s aquifers place severe pressure on the environment. Low rainfall dries out soils, weakens vegetation, and reduces water flow in valleys and wetlands, leading to a loss of biodiversity. Aquifer depletion lowers the water table and causes salinisation, making groundwater too salty for crops and damaging agricultural land. As soils become drier and less fertile, the risk of desertification increases, especially in exposed or over‑used areas. Together, these factors make Malta’s natural ecosystems more fragile and threaten the long‑term sustainability of agriculture.

What do freshwater springs serve as?

As a source of drinking water and used to be beneficial in water pumping.

Name ways/underground water supplies in which water is extracted from our rocks.

Boreholes, pumping stations, water mills and underground water galleries.

Uncontrolled groundwater extraction on Malta’s aquifers

It occurs when more water is pumped out of Malta’s aquifers than can naturally be replaced by rainfall. Both the Perched Aquifers and the Mean‑Sea‑Level Aquifer are affected, but in different ways. Perched aquifers are small and depend entirely on limited winter rainfall; when extraction exceeds replenishment, springs weaken or dry up, reducing water available for agriculture and harming valley ecosystems. The Mean‑Sea‑Level Aquifer, Malta’s largest groundwater body, faces even more serious consequences. Over‑pumping lowers the water table, allowing sea water to infiltrate the aquifer, a process known as salination. Once seawater enters, the groundwater becomes too salty for drinking, irrigation, or ecological use, and recovery is extremely slow. As a result, uncontrolled extraction leads to long‑term depletion of freshwater resources, loss of agricultural productivity, and degradation of natural habitats, placing additional pressure on Malta to rely on energy‑intensive desalination.

Boreholes

A very small hole is dug meters deep through the surface and a small water pump is installed to pump up the water.

Pumping stations

They withdraw water from the rocks and in these stations, the water that we drink is tested at the water services corporation.

Water mill

In the past it was used to collect the fresh water from the perched aquifer.

Underground water gallery

It withdraws water through water pumps.

Water table

The underground water supply.

Aquifer

The rock in which the water in the water table is stored.

What caused for us to pump considerable amounts of water from underground supplies?

Due to the lack of rain in Malta, the drought and the increased water demand by people.

Why is sustainability in the water from the mean sea level aquifer important?

To conserve the quantity and quality of the water.

Name ways in which the groundwater is polluted

Pesticides acting against the insects which attack the farmer’s products end up infiltrating the mean sea level aquifer through rain, rainwater then infiltrates the underground water supply while carrying these toxic chemicals with it, polluting it. In landfills, there could be objects which are full of chemicals which melt with the rain and infiltrates in the rock.

Threats to Malta’s perched and mean-sea level aquifers

Less rainfall, over extraction, pollution by farming and other industries, chemical infiltration, sea water infiltration, urban/infrastructural development, population density and tourism.

What could help decrease the water shortage problem?

Reverse osmosis plants and sewage treatment plants.

Give places in which reverse osmosis plants are found.

Cirkewwa, Pembroke and Ghar Lapsi.

Reverse osmosis plants (desalination)

Seawater is extracted and the salt is removed from it, converting it into potable water, giving us a reliable and constant supply of drinking water. This process uses a considerable amount of electricity and so, it costs a lot of money and leads to high prices of water.

Sewage treatment plants

Water from the sewage is filtered and becomes second class water, with the help of this, the sewage is not thrown way in the sea anymore resulting in sea pollution. This can be used by farmers for irrigation, providing a reliable alternative to groundwater reducing pressure on over-extracted aquifers by supplying safe, high-quality irrigation water improving water sustainability ensuring waste water is reused rather than wasted, so we should be attentive to what we dispose in the drainage, so this water can be reused.

-Sewage treatment plants in Malta, such as Ta’ Barkat, Għadira, and the Gozo plant, prevent both terrestrial and marine pollution by treating all wastewater before it is released into the environment. They stop raw sewage from entering the sea, protecting marine ecosystems like seagrass meadows and keeping bathing waters clean. On land, they prevent sewage from contaminating valleys, soil, and groundwater, reducing health risks and protecting agriculture. By removing harmful bacteria, chemicals, and nutrients, these plants play a vital role in safeguarding Malta’s environment and biodiversity.

Sources of fresh water in the Maltese islands

Ground water; springs; desalination; sewage treatment.

Importance of water conservation in Malta’s semi-arid climate.

Excavation of cisterns for rainwater harvesting; covered reservoirs; dams; water conservation measures at home.

Lifestyle choices which can help preserve Malta’s limited water resources

By reducing water use at home, such as taking shorter showers, turning off taps while brushing teeth, fixing leaking pipes, and using water‑efficient appliances. Households can also harvest rainwater by maintaining or installing cisterns, which reduces dependence on groundwater and reverse osmosis water. Choosing water‑saving gardening practices, such as drip irrigation, watering plants early in the morning, and planting drought‑resistant species, further reduces unnecessary consumption. People can also help by avoiding wasteful habits, like washing cars with hoses instead of buckets, or over‑watering fields and gardens. Finally, supporting responsible water use in agriculture and industry, buying local produce grown with efficient irrigation, and raising awareness about water scarcity all contribute to protecting Malta’s limited water resources.

What are river sources? and where are they found?

Rain, snow and groundwater. They are found in highland, the peak of this and creates the watershed, so it starts at mountain peak.

How are rivers formed?

On its way to the sea or lake, water forms rivers.

How is the main river channel formed? Where are the channels located?

Springs join in a tributary and tributaries join in a river to form the main river channel. These channels are located on flat land and are wide and deep where water moves slowly.

Where does the river meet the sea?

At the delta in the river mouth.

How is running surface water formed?

When water accumulates in springs, these form running surface water.

What forms the river basin in a tree-like figure?

The watercourses in rivers get larger the closer they are to the river mouth and form the river basin in a tree-like figure.

What is the longest river in the world? Name its source, where the river mouth is and what is provides.

The river Nile in Africa. Its source is in the Burundi highlands, the river mouth lies in the Mediterranean Sea and it provides a source of water, especially in areas of drought in the Sahara Desert. This resulted in a number of cities being built along this river.

What is the river that holds the most water in it/the largest? Name its source and where the river mouth is.

The Amazon river, it’s source is in the Andes Mountains and the river mouth is in the Atlantic Ocean.

Processes which contribute to changes in the Earth’s topography through rivers

Erosion, transportation, and deposition where this water breaks down and carries and places material like rocks, mud and silt.

Formation of a V-shaped valley

As the water rushes down the mountains, it carries with it rocks and particles, and other material. This material forms the river load that is dragged along the river bed and banks for these to erode through the process of erosion. The river load carries with its pieces from the river bed and banks in water so that the valley increases in size. As the valley sides and bottom start to erode through erosion, a V-shaped valley forms and as time passes, it gets deeper and steeper through erosion.

Formation of an Oxbow Lake

As soon as the river forms on flat land, it starts to wind and forms meanders. The water on the inner side of the meander deposits material, whilst the water on the outer side of the meander erodes the river bank. When the river meander expands, this is cut off from the river to form an oxbow lake that later dries up.

Floodplains

When a river overflows its banks with water it spreads over the floodplain.

When the river current is strong what process takes place?

The process of erosion forms a river cliff on the outside of a river bank on the inside of the river meander.

Delta

The land that forms at the river mouth near the sea.

What is deposited at the delta?

The river load.

Give uses of rivers.

As a means of transport, mode of communication and a mode of recreation since this water can generate hydroelectric power which is a clean renewable energy type through dams.

Name ways in which river water is polluted.

When sewage, industrial and agricultural chemicals, toxic material or other waste is placed in rivers.

How does a waterfall form?

When the river falls from a cliff, as a result of erosion, the soft layer is eroded more quickly than the hard rock layer which is on top. Erosion occurs due to water from the waterfall, as the hard rock starts to erode slowly from beneath, this hangs like a shelf where it eventually falls down so that the waterfall retreats backwards and a deep plunge pool is formed in the process.

What is the highest waterfall in the world?

Angel Falls in Venezuela.

What is the widest waterfall in the world, that which holds the most water in it?

Victoria Falls on the river Zambezi.

Freshwater courses in Malta.

They are normally dry in Summer but wet in Winter.

What are characteristics close to rivers that used to indicate the amount of water present in it in the past?

The formation of V-shaped valleys, a floodplain and waterfalls.

What freshwater springs in Malta form? Where do they flow?

They form Maltese valleys in high land towards the southwest of Malta and it flows towards the Northeast in low-lying land.

Name the valley systems in Malta.

Wied il-Ghasel, Wied is-Sewda and Wied il-Kbir.

What causes a system of valleys?

Due to the tectonic movement of the earth from earthquakes formed by, horst and graben, especially towards the North of Malta.

What does tectonic movement cause?

Hills were pushed upwards, which is horst and valleys slided downwards, which is graben.

Why are freshwater springs in valleys diminishing?

Due to the use in farming, the development of the environment, waste, pesticides and nitrates from fertilizers.

Name indigenous animals that are threatened by the freshwater springs in valleys diminishing.

The freshwater crab and the frog.

Name 3 things in Chadwick lakes.

When it rains, this valley hold water in it through dams, especially when the amount of rainfall decreases. The valley has the shape of a semicircle with sloping sides. Due to the damages that a valley like this may suffer from with the volume of water in it, gabions have been placed.

Name 3 vegetation species found in Chadwick lakes.

The white poplar, the deciduous tree and the chaste tree.

Name 3 insects found in Chadwick lakes.

Flies, bees and wasps.

How does flooding occur?

When rainwater collects in a place instead of flowing to the sea on time, flooding occurs.

Name 2 causes of flooding. Give examples.

Natural causes such as low lying land, tsunamis and hurricanes and human causes such as the urbanisation, deforestation and climate change due to air pollution.

What are some consequences of a flood?

Traffic, causing congestion. Damages in the structure of roads and buildings may be of serious danger and cause loss of lives, buildings and as well environmental loss. Workers being late to work.

How does urbanisation affect flooding?

Soil amounts are reduced and so, water instead of being absorbed by the soil it causes flooding.

How does deforestation affect flooding?

Trees cannot take up water or store it on the leaves and tree roots cannot hold soil in its place.

Name ways in which we can control flood.

Afforestation, the expansion of water canals and a storm water alarm.

Arable farmer

Farmers that produces food from land. Takes care of the fruit and vegetables which we consume and export. To separate from one field from the other the crops are grown in fields which are separated by rubble walls.

Pastoral farmer

Farmers that raise animals such as pigs, cows and goats. in which the farmer takes meat, eggs and wool.

Mixed farming

When a person does the work of both an arable farmer and a pastoral farmer.

Main challenges of arable/mixed farming in Malta.

Small field size; accessibility; shallow soils; poor humus content.

Dry cultivation land/non irrigated fields

Watered with rainwater.

Irrigated lands

Watered by the farmer, make use of sprinkles as well as drip irrigation pipes and water is supplied throughout the year.

Give examples of summery dry cultivation land products. What is the best type of soil in this case?

Wheat, barley and garlic. The best type of soil in this case is clayey soil.

Give examples of wintery dry cultivation land products. What is the best type of soil in this case?

Potatoes, cabbages and turnips. The best type of soil in this case is clayey soil.

Give examples of wintery irrigated lands’ products. What is the best type of soil in this case?

Artichokes, beetroots and carrots. The best type of soil in this case is sandy soil.

Give examples of summery irrigated lands’ products. What is the best type of soil in this case?

Tomatoes, eggplants and cucumbers. The best type of soil in this case is sandy soil.

Natural/physical factors in farming. Give examples.

They are derived from the natural environment and are not determined by the farmer but he needs to take them into consideration. Such as, water, wind, soil and parasites.

Rubble walls

They serve as wind breaks and help so that the soil is not carried away, but when these walls collapse, the soil is carried away and lost.

Manure

It’s spread on the soil and is ploughed so that it is more productive.

Pesticides/insecticides

Poison which is spread on crops so that the parasites, diseases, mold and microbes that damage the farmer’s product are eliminated.

Human factors in farming. Give examples.

They are caused and some are controlled by humans. Such as, prices, the farmer has costs but profit remains, technology, it helps the farmer to be more effective and efficient, and small land size, so there is a limit for the farmer.

Name developments in farming.

Before, the farmer’s work used to be carried out manually or with the use of an animal, now, tractors help the farmers to be more efficient and effective in their work.

Subsistence farming

A way of living for the farmer’s family and his animals.

Greenhouses

Wooden or metal structures covered with glass or plastic where light and the sun’s heat come through, while it protects the farmer’s product from the cold, wind and parasites.

Give products which are grown throughout the year in greenhouses.

Tomatoes, eggplants and cucumbers.

Drip irrigation and sprinklers

Due to a waste of water, automatic and efficient systems were employed. In the vines, drip irrigation occurs.