Biochemistry, Cell Structure, and Reproduction: Key Concepts for Biology

Water Molecules

Model of water molecules and explanation of hydrogen bonds due to polarity.

Polarity of Water

Influences the properties of water.

Ion Concentrations

Differences in acids and bases, specifically in the dissociation of water.

Carbohydrates

Structure of carbohydrates.

Proteins

Structure of proteins.

Lipids

Structure of lipids.

Nucleic Acids

Structure of nucleic acids.

Monosaccharides

Differentiation from disaccharides and polysaccharides.

Polysaccharides

Differences between plant and animal polysaccharides.

Saturated Fats

Differentiation from unsaturated fats.

Phospholipids

Structure of phospholipids.

Steroids

Structure of steroids.

Protein Folding

Levels of protein folding based on the bonds formed.

Functions of Macromolecules

Functions of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

Enzymes

Function of enzymes as catalysts.

Enzyme Exposure

What happens to enzymes when exposed to temperatures and pH outside of their normal range.

Enzyme Models

Analysis and creation of models of enzymes and substrates.

Enzyme Inhibition

How different types of inhibition affect enzyme function.

Reaction Coordinate Diagram

Determines whether the reaction is endothermic or exothermic.

Reaction Models

Evaluation to determine whether it's dehydration synthesis or hydrolysis.

Prokaryotic Cells

Single-celled organisms without a nucleus.

Eukaryotic Cells

Cells that contain a nucleus.

Animal Cells

Cells that lack a cell wall and chloroplasts, found in animals.

Plant Cells

Cells with a cell wall, chloroplasts, and large central vacuole, found in plants.

Fungal Cells

Cells with a cell wall made of chitin, found in fungi.

Protist Cells

Diverse group of eukaryotic cells that can be similar to plant, animal, or fungal cells.

Nucleus

Contains genetic material (DNA) and controls cellular activities.

Mitochondria

Known as the 'powerhouse' of the cell; produces energy (ATP) through cellular respiration.

Chloroplasts

Site of photosynthesis, contains chlorophyll.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Involved in protein synthesis and processing.

Rough ER

Studded with ribosomes; involved in protein synthesis and processing.

Smooth ER

Lacks ribosomes; involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification.

Ribosomes

Sites of protein synthesis; can be found floating in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER.

Golgi Apparatus

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport or secretion.

Lysosomes

Contain digestive enzymes to break down waste materials and cellular debris.

Peroxisomes

Break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful substances.

Vacuoles

Storage compartments for food, water, and waste.

Cytoskeleton

Network of fibers providing structural support and aiding in cell movement.

Cell Membrane

Semi-permeable membrane that controls the movement of substances in and out of the cell.

Cell Wall

Provides structural support and protection in plant cells, fungi, and some protists.

Cellular Transport

Movement of substances into and out of cells to maintain homeostasis.

Diffusion

Movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

Facilitated Diffusion

Movement of molecules through a membrane via specific transport proteins.

Osmosis

Special type of facilitated diffusion for water molecules.

Sodium-Potassium Pump

Pumps sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell.

Endocytosis

Process by which cells take in substances by engulfing them with the cell membrane.

Exocytosis

Process by which cells expel substances by vesicles fusing with the cell membrane.

Passive Transport

Movement of substances without the use of cellular energy (ATP).

Active Transport

Movement of substances against their concentration gradient, requiring energy (usually ATP).

Selective Permeability

The cell membrane's ability to allow certain molecules to pass while blocking others.

Concentration Gradient

The difference in the concentration of a substance between two areas.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of a stable internal environment within the cell.

Photosynthesis

Converts the Sun's energy into chemical energy.

Cellular respiration

Uses chemical energy to carry out life functions.

Light-dependent reactions (LDR)

Phase of photosynthesis where light energy is converted into chemical energy.

Calvin cycle

Phase of photosynthesis that synthesizes carbohydrates using ATP and NADPH.

Chloroplast

Organelles that contain light-absorbing pigments for photosynthesis.

Electron transport chain (ETC)

Series of proteins in the thylakoid membrane that pass electrons during photosynthesis.

Chemiosmosis

Process that uses the flow of protons to generate ATP in photosynthesis.

Inputs of photosynthesis

Carbon dioxide, water, and light energy.

Outputs of photosynthesis

Glucose and oxygen.

Glycolysis

First stage of cellular respiration where glucose is broken down.

Kreb's cycle

Second stage of cellular respiration occurring in the mitochondria.

Fermentation

Process that allows glycolysis to continue in the absence of oxygen.

Cellular reproduction

The process by which a cell divides to form new cells.

Interphase

Phase where the cell grows and prepares for division.

M Phase (Mitosis)

The process where the cell divides into two daughter cells.

Checkpoints

Control mechanisms in the cell cycle ensuring proper division.

G1 Checkpoint

Checks if the cell is ready for DNA synthesis.

DNA Structure

DNA is a double helix made of nucleotides.

RNA Structure

RNA is single-stranded and made of nucleotides with uracil replacing thymine.

mRNA

Carries genetic instructions from DNA to ribosomes.

tRNA

Brings amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis.

rRNA

Part of the ribosome, helps assemble proteins.

DNA replication

Process by which DNA makes a copy of itself before cell division.

Prophase

Stage of mitosis where chromosomes condense and become visible.

Metaphase

Stage of mitosis where chromosomes line up at the center of the cell.

Anaphase

Stage of mitosis where sister chromatids are pulled apart.

Telophase

Stage of mitosis where nuclear membranes form around separated chromosomes.

Cytokinesis

Final stage of cell division where the cytoplasm divides.