Bio Exam 3

Anthropology

·      Study of the human race, including lifestyle, culture, and physical traits throughout time

Forensic Anthropology:

A specialty area within physical anthropology that uses characteristics of bone structure (osteology) to determine the identify of human remains and present findings in a court of law

Osteology

·      The scientific study of bones/bone structure

·      The human skeleton is one of the most durable biological records of a person's life

When we find remains, can use it as a biological profil

·      Axial Skeleton

o   Down middle axis

o   Skull

o   Vertebral column

o   Ribs

o   Sternum

·      Appendicular Skeleton

o   Outside, appendages (parts that hang off of our body are attached to)

o   Arms

o   Legs
Pelvis

o   Shoulder girdle

structure of organism

Cell  tissue  organ  organ system  organism

diaphysis

·      ancient Greek; dia- (through, between) and physis- (bring forth, grow) referring to the shaft growing between the ends of the bone

o   (Skinny) Middle of bone

Epiphysis

·      epi- upon/above growth, in addition. Refers to the end part of a long bone, initially growing separately from the shaft.

o   Ends of bone

Medullary Cavity

·      Latin, medull- (innermost; marrow). Cav- hollow; ity- state or condition. MARROW

o   In heart of bone

o   Looks almost like hair medulla

Endosteum

·      endo- (inside); osteon (bone). Refers to the membrane lining the cavity

o   Crustaceans have exto-skel because they have hard lining

Trabecular (Spongy) Bone:

Light and spongy, adds strength without adding weight. Internal layer found in long bones

Medullary Cavity

·      Where the marrow is!; WHERE RBC ARE MADE; Center and inner most part

haversian canal

tunnels where we get necessary oxygen for bone sites

·      Nutrient and Oxygen

·      Supply: Supplying bone cells (osteocytes) in the surrounding lamellae with necessary nutrients and oxygen.

·        (central canal) = tiny tunnels inside the shaft of long bones

·       Carry blood vessels and nerves

Canaliculi

Interconnecting osteocytes to allow communication and the exchange of materials between cells.

osteocytes

The most abundant mature bone cells

·      Best way to remodel your bones

·      Mechanosensation (Stress Sensors): Osteocytes detect mechanical loads, stress, and damage to the bone matrix.

sciatic nerve

a big nerve that runs from your lower back down your legs.

orbits

Smaller in size overall, and sharper supraorbital margins, eye sockets less square; Rounded upper edges, smaller in size overall, and sharper supraorbital margins

Supraorbital Margin:

he curved, bony ridge forming the upper edge of the eye socket (orbit), located within the frontal bone of the skull

ocipital lobe

back of head

Bone Divination

·      fortune telling/predicting future/palm readings, etc.

·      Ossuaries

o   In Europe, some churches stored bones in elaborate displays

§  Not just buried beneath Church

But BUIDLINGS

impression

·     When one object makes physical contact with another, it may leave some of its physical characteristics

circumstantial evidence

o   Actual shoe is missing, can’t see individual tread patterns, only showing him in photo

§  Only would be able to get if could afford

footprints

can reveal size, gait, and movement

malleus

a hammer-shaped small bone or ossicle of the middle ear.

incus

the central auditory ossicle in the middle ear that connects the malleus to the stapes.

stapes

the smallest, lightest bone in the human body, located in the middle ear.

cartilage

involve the firm, elastic upper ear tissue

helix

the prominent, curved outer rim of cartilage on the human auricle (outer ear), extending from just above the earlobe to the scalp

antihelix

a prominent, curved cartilaginous ridge on the pinna (visible outer ear) that runs parallel to and in front of the outermost rim, the helix.

lobe

the soft, fleshy, pendulous lower part of the external ear, composed of skin and connective tissue without cartilage

MDI (Medicolegal Death Investigation)

·      Legal and investigative process

·      Goal: determine cause and manner of death in a legal context

): This is the process of figuring out how someone died in a way that matters legally.

first degree murder

• Planned, intentional killing. The person meant to kill and thought about it beforehand.

second degree murder

• Definition: Intentional killing, but not planned ahead of time. It happens in the heat of the moment.

third degree murder

• Definition: Often called “depraved heart” murder—killing caused by reckless behavior showing extreme disregard for life, but without specific intent to kill.

manslaughter

• Definition: Killing without malice or intent to murder—sometimes accidental or during a sudden emotional reaction.

Forensic Pathology

·      Biological and medical science of disease and death

·      Goal: Determine physiological reason behind death

cause of death

• Official definition: The specific medical reason a person died (the disease, injury, or combination that led directly to death).

manner of death

• Official definition: The category or classification of how the death happened. It’s more about the circumstances than the exact medical reason.

coroner system

usually elected and serve a single county

o   Differs by both states and counties

-              They requirements vary to become one

-              Some states don’t think it should be allowed

They run for election; Anyone can be

medical examiner

-              Are appointed officials

o   Have to have credentials to become one

Typically physicians and often forensic pathologists

6th Amendment- Confrontation Clause

o   Grants individuals accused of a crime the right to be confronted with the witnesses against him

·       Ohio v Roberts (1980)

Falsely saying things; going on the record saying something else said something

o   The Court established a two-part test for admitting hearsay:

§  The witness must be unavailable.

§  The statement must have "indicia of reliability"

·       Two pronged approach to solve this

·       Only time to allow hearsay, if witness is deceased, statement must have indicators its reliable

·       Crawford v Washington (2004)

o   Overturned Roberts; US Supreme Court completely rejected “reliability” standard

o   Established that "testimonial" out-of-court statements are inadmissible unless the witness is unavailable and the defendant had a prior chance to cross-examine them

Testimonial View:

Some courts, like those in Pennsylvania (Commonwealth v. Brown) argue that autopsies in suspicious deaths are

Non-Testimonial View

Other courts (such as in Texas) view autopsies as "business" or "public records" created for public health and administrative purposes rather than specifically for litigation.

surrogate pathologist

Substitute pathologist—basically another medical expert who steps in when the original pathologist who performed an autopsy or wrote a report is not available to testify in court.

People v. Dungo

California, 2012): Ruling that autopsy reports are not testimonial because their primary purpose isn't strictly for criminal prosecution (they also serve public health and family needs)

Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts (2009):

·       The Supreme Court held that forensic lab reports are testimonial.

Bullcoming v. New Mexico (2011):

This case outlawed "surrogate testimony".

The prosecution cannot simply call a different expert to read the results of an autopsy or lab test if they didn't personally perform or observe it

Smith v. Arizona (2024):

Reaffirmed that if a prosecutor wants to use the results of forensic testing (like an autopsy), the defendant must have the opportunity to cross-examine the specific analyst responsible

Weberman v. Zugibe (1977):

 Set a precedent that religious objections (such as Orthodox Jewish burial customs) can sometimes override the state’s desire for an autopsy if there is no suspicion of foul play.

State ex rel. Cincinnati Enquirer v. Pike Cty. Coroner's Office (2017):

Clarified that autopsy reports in homicide investigations are often exempt from public record laws because they are part of a law enforcement investigation.

Clinical Pathology

·       Analysis of various materials removed from the body to learn about disease.

o   Includes blood, saliva, spinal fluid, urine, etc. for the purpose of determining presence of drugs and/or poisons and their role in death

Forensic Pathology

·       Determination of cause and manner of death in cases of suspicious or unexplained death

The post-mortem interval (PMI)

§  is the estimated time elapsed between a person’s death and the discovery of their body

Anatomic Pathology:

The structural and morphological changes to the body as the result of a disease state

Toxicology

·       Look for harmful fluids (toxicity)

·       Fluids: Samples of blood, stomach content (know time and what was digested; helps establish T.O.D based on digestion timeline), bile and urine

o   What they ate could trace evidence back to crime

·       Organs: Brain matter, liver, and vitreous humor (fluid in eyeballs)

·       Why test blood? Determine presence/levels of alcohol and drugs

Virtopsy

s a non-invasive forensic technique that utilizes advanced imaging technologies—primarily CT scans, MRI, and 3D surface scanning—to determine the cause and manner of death without traditional dissection. 

contusion

·       Bruise caused by blunt force to tissue without breaking the skin

·       Blood vessels near the skin surface are damaged

hematoma

·       Localized, firm, swollen, discolored collection of clotted blood

·       Pooling of blood in areas outside of blood vessels

·       More serious injury, occurs when blood leaks out of blood vessels and accumulates in an area outside of them outside the blood vessels

Bilirubin

•       Yellowing pigment produced when the body breaks down old red bed blood cells (because RBC have hemoglobin); it’s a normal byproduct of metabolism

o   Too much bilirubin

Denature

To change properties of nucleic acid (DNA) or protein, causing it to lose structure and function

• Ways to denature → change temperature, adjust pH, add chemicals

• Takes double strand and applies high heat (~95°C)
  → This breaks the DNA in half (like unzipping a zipper) so it becomes two single strands

Annealing =

In PCR, the cooling down of temperatures. Comes from metal/glass workers, who made materials more malleable by heating, maintaining that heat, then cooling temperatures

extension

Making the DNA chains grow longer by adding the appropriate nucleotides. This is how new copies are made

Adding new bases

Taq polymerase

rapidly replicate a specific DNA sequence in a test tube

template

free floating nitrogenous bases

primers

taq polmerase

What do you need for PCR

Macrophages

o   metabolize hemoglobin over time; inflammation occurs shortly after injury

Hematomas

·      Much more serious

·      Still comes from damaged blood vessels but can damage more important places than just skin

Incised Wounds

o   Clean, intentional cuts

Lacerations

·      When skin DOES tear

·      Type of wound caused by blunt force injury

·      Rougher edges than incisions

·      Ragged edges

·      Cause by any tear of skin, not necessarily sharp object slicing skin

Stab wound

·      Not an incision, just put weapon in and out

·      Don’t want object out of body, keeping pressure in place

 

Gun shot wound Stippling

area gets burned around entry

Petechiae

If you press on them, they remain red, purple or brown

·      Red, purple, or brown spots caused by minor bleeding from broken/busted capillaries under the skin (small and thin capillaries)

Bleeding from the capillaries into the skin or mucous membranes, which results in tiny (pinpoint) red marks.

Corticosteroids

·      can relieve pressure in the blood vessels

o   Any big pressure on blood vessels can cause them to burst in circulatory system

Capillaries

·      Tiny blood vessels, called capillaries, link the smallest parts of your arteries to the smallest parts of your veins

Cause of Death

The trauma injury of disease of combination that resulted been recognized in cessation of life

Primary cause of death

the disease or injury that initiated the train of morbid events leading directly to death, or the circumstances of the accident/violence that produced the fatal injury.

secondary cause

conditions, diseases, or injuries that contributed to a person’s death but were not the immediate or primary underlying cause.

Manner of death

·      Set of circumstances that existed at the time the death was caused

o   Ex: Accident, Homicide, etc

coroner

Corona, of the crown. Tax collector for the King

Autopsy

to see with one’s own eyes

Pallor mortis:

·      : pallor= pale; mortis = of death

o   1^st of the telltale signs

o   Usually the first sign of death, occurs within 15-25 minutes

o   Heart can no longer pump blood, so there is no circulation to capillaries near the skin’s surface

Algor mortis

coldness; mortis = of death

o   Cooling of the body at a specific rate after time of death

o   Loss of metabolic heat production after death (No ATP production → metabolism stops)

liver mortis

o   Tendency of the blood to pool at the lowest part of the body under the influence of gravity after death

o   Blood stops circulating upon death

Hemolysis

is the destruction or breakdown of red blood cells (RBCs), releasing their contents (hemoglobin) into surrounding plasma

Rigor mortis:

·      : rigor= stiffness; mortis = of death

o   Stiffening of the joints within hours after death