Psych 1 Midterm 3

Mechanism Movement

Biological mechanisms are behind all thoughts and behaviors

Jean Charcot

Began treating people with hypnosis and other approaches to get at the "unconscious" with Sigmund Freud

Psychodynamic Theory

Personality is based on the interplay of conflicting forces within the individual

Conscious

The thoughts and experiences of which we are aware of that impact our behaviors

Unconscious

The thoughts and experiences of which we are UNAWARE of that impact our behaviors

Id

An unconscious force that constantly seeks satisfaction of basic needs (survival, sex, thirst, hunger, sleep, etc.)

Superego

A preconscious force that's only goal is to push us to do what is 'right' (society's standards)

Ego

A conscious force that we develop in the social world and operates on the reality principle—seeking to satisfy id's and the superego's desires in realistic ways

Freud's Clinical Work

• Focused on accessing the unconscious traumas and/or needs that had to be addressed in order understand a person

• Required bringing the unconscious "up," to change personality or address the abnormal through: Psychoanalysis, Hypnosis, Free association, Dream interpretation, "Freudian Slips"

Libido

Psychosexual energy; an insatiable sexual drive that comes in different forms during our lifetime

Oral stage

(0-18 months) Mouth centered stimulation; oral fixations

Anal stage

(18-36 months) Potty training focus; anal retentiveness

Phallic stage

(3-6 years) Genital/gender exploration; penis envy, gender intensification, castration fear

Latency

(6 to puberty) No libido

Genital stage

(puberty +) Maturation of sexual interest; sexual issues

Anna O (Bertha Pappenheim)

Important case study by Freud; influenced his psychodynamic theory

Franz Anton Mesmer

First hypnotist; magnétisme animal; "mesmerizing"

Induction, Relaxation, Suggestion

The 3 steps of hypnosis

Posthypnotic Amnesia

When a person cannot remember what happened while he/she was hypnotized

Carl Jung

• Freud's "heir apparent"; broke with Freud's work because of his differing beliefs about personality formation
• Personality is formed from both conscious and unconscious forces
• Our personal unconscious did not contain the basic instincts that Freud proposed (primarily the id)
• Archetypes

Archetypes

Vague, existential, and spiritual images/concepts found within our personality; some inherited from ancestors, others unique to the individual

Alfred Adler

• Superiority Theory

• Another early student of Freud's, but broke away because of differing theories (too much focus on sex)

• Individual psychology

• Striving for superiority

• Inferiority complex

Superiority Theory

Personality was based on our attempts to pursue our strengths and make up for our shortcomings

Individual Psychology

An approach to study the personality of a person as a whole rather than in separate parts (id/ego/superego)

Striving for Superiority

A desire to seek personal excellence and fulfillment

Inferiority Complex

An exaggerated feeling of weakness, inadequacy, and helplessness due to assessing a lack in a skill

Carl Rogers

• Formed theory of personality and clinical psychology focused on the positive aspects of individual
• Humanistic Approach
• Self-Actualization
• Actual self
• Ideal self

Humanistic Approach

An approach to psychology that postulated that people are constantly striving for betterment and to reach a point of accurate self representation and a point self actualization

Self-Actualization

The achievement of one's full potential, that results in great accomplishments, and is obtained through the alignment of selves

Actual Self

The person that we are

Ideal Self

The person that we want to be; rarely achieved

Abraham Maslow

• Hierarchy of Needs
• Humanist; believed concept of self-actualization

Hierarchy of Needs

Chart that shows "needs" that have to be met for a person to pursue self-actualization

Physiological, Safety, Love, Esteem, Self-Actualization

Hierarchy of Needs from Bottom to Top

Social Cognitive Model

• Individuals are constantly working to understand their environment
• Develop personality from our social environment
• Interacting with environment to obtain things that we learn to want, through techniques that we learn to use

Albert Bandura

• Focused his research on how we learn to develop personality related behaviors
• Modeling
• Bobo doll experiments

Modeling

Process of developing behaviors based on the observation of others and the outcomes that they experience (ex. Bobo doll experiments)

Walter Mischel

• Student of George Kelly (cognitive approach to personality)
• Focused research on the cognitions that we develop that form our personality
• Expectations of results from behaviors (ex. party for introverts vs. extroverts)
• Interpretations of the situation
• Competencies
• Delay of gratification

Competencies

The skill sets that we have available to deal with social situations; carried over to other abilities; last long time

Delay of Gratification

The ability to withstand temptation in order to achieve a greater reward (ex. marshmallow study)

Barnum Effect

Likely to attribute characteristics to ourselves because find some similarities (ex. Buzzfeed quizzes, horoscopes, etc.)

Validity

Accuracy; how "correct" the result is

Reliability

Precision; how close multiple results are to each other

MMPI Test

• Devised empirically (not theoretically)
• Most widely used by psychologists
• ~600 True/False questions; 10 clinical scales
• Used to assess for disorders

NEO PI-R Test

• 5 Factor Personality Model (Costa and McCrae)
• 240 items on a "likert scale" (least to most)
• OCEAN (Openness to new experiences, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism)
• Used to measure "normal" personality

Openness to new experiences, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism

5 factors measured with NEO PI-R; "The Big 5"

MBTI (Myers-Briggs) Test

• Used in workplace and in schools
• Categorizes people into 16 types (combinations of 4 traits)
• 4 Traits: Extrovert/Introvert, Sensing/Intuitive, Thinking/Feeling, Judging/Perceiving

Extrovert/Introvert, Sensing/Intuitive, Thinking/Feeling, Judging/Perceiving

4 traits measured with MBTI (Myers-Briggs) Test

Projective Tests

• Projected on another object or person because embarrassed/ashamed/etc.
• Abstract; open to interpretation
• Not very good but can help patient get out what they can't say

Rorschach Inkblots

• Projective Test involving inkblots
• Much critique; used to confirm what psychologists already knew; many wrongfully labeled mentally disturbed

TAT (Thematic Apperception Test)

• Projective Test
• Person describes story for a given picture/image

Personality

All the consistent ways in which the behavior of one person differs from and is similar to that of others, especially in social situations

Traits

A distinguishing character or quality that can be used to describe consistent behaviors in an individual

Gordon Allport

• First trait psychologist
• Very successful in school; attended Harvard as an undergraduate and majored in psychology
• Met with Freud after graduating while visiting one of his brothers in Vienna where he had his "breakthrough moment"
• State-Trait Distinction

State-Trait Distinction

• Gordon Allport
• States, Traits, Cardinal Traits, Central Traits, Secondary Dispositions

States

Momentary reactions to situations that are a direct result of the social environment

Allport's Traits

Stable behaviors that occur across situations and time

Cardinal Traits

Traits that are pervasive enough in that they tend to dominate one's personality or even life

Central Traits

Traits that cover a number of behaviors, but are not the dominant feature of one's life

Secondary Dispositions/Traits

Traits that manifest themselves only on rare occasions, and play a minimal role in one's life

Openness to new experience

A tendency to enjoy new intellectual experiences and new ideas

Conscientiousness

A tendency to show self-discipline, to be dutiful, and to strive for achievement and competence

Extraversion

A tendency to seek stimulation and to enjoy the company of others

Agreeableness

A tendency to be compassionate toward others

Neuroticism

A tendency to experience unpleasant emotions relatively easily

Shortcomings of "The Big 5"

• Not always a good predictor of other cultures
• Might have too few variables
• Might have too many variables
• Might not be a good predictor of specific behaviors

Differences in Traits

• As we age

• Across generations

Genes

• Determinants of personality traits -Twin studies

Learning Approach

Our personality is the result of our recognized membership in groups, our roles in these groups, and the norms of the groups (Gender roles, Racial norms, Family traditions, Cultural norms and roles)

Anchoring Effect

When learners rely too heavily on the first piece of information encountered when assessing traits

Substance Use Disorders

A cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and physiological symptoms indicating that the individual continues using the substance despite significant substance-related problems

Physical Dependence

• Biological Dependence
• Body's growing tolerance of the drug leads to withdrawal if drug is removed

Psychological Dependence

• Neurochemical Dependence

• Presence of antecedents cue the brain to strongly ANTICIPATE and desire the substance and its reinforcing consequences

Nucleus Accumbens

• Location in brain that houses dopamine receptors
• "Attention and Habit Center"

Cue, Routine, Reward

Steps that lead to dependence

Nicotine Dependence

Treatments for this dependence:

• Replacement Source (eg: Patch)
• Low-Tar Cigarette

Alcoholism

Treatments for this dependence:

• Alcoholics Anonymous
• Antabuse
• Harm Reduction
• Contingency Management

Opiate Dependence

Treatments for this dependence:

• "Cold Turkey"
• Contingency Management
• Substitute (eg: methadone)

DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)

• Attempts to generate uniform definitions and standards for diagnosis
• Designed to list the "accepted labels" for all psychological disorders
• Also looks at social, mental, and functionality issues that need to be considered
• Attempts to be atheoretical—not be linked to a clinical approach

Problems with DSM

• Differentiating normal from abnormal is difficult (most often fall on a continuum, not category)
• Manifestation of disorders often vary across individuals diagnosed with the same disorder—both in the intensity and the symptoms of the disorder
• Situational factors not taken into account
• Disorder classifications arbitrary-- and some seem more about reactions to issues than clinically related (ex: homosexuality, autism spectral disorder)
• Almost anyone seeking help diagnosed with a mental disorder

Advantages of DSM

• Used in almost every reputable clinic and by almost every reputable clinician today
• Provided time saving, extremely effective way of diagnosing and treating mental disorders
• Continually adapting

Somatogenic Hypothesis

Mental disorders are the result of physical causes (illnesses/changes to the brian) that are incurable

Phillipe Pinel

• Was put in charge of the Parisian hospital system
• Immediately attempted to challenge philosophy of mental issues being illness related and spreadable

Bio-psycho-social Model

Abnormal behavior and/or thoughts is the result of biological, sociocultural, and/or psychological factors that combine and interact

Diathesis-stress Model

Biological predispositions and environmental stress are both necessary components for the manifestation of abnormal behaviors or thoughts

Psychosurgery

• Treatment based on idea that abnormal is caused by physical abnormalities
• In the past, approaches like Electro-Convulsive Shock Therapy (ECT), and lobotomies

Medication

• Treatment that assumes there is neurochemical link to certain disorders and mental issues -Benefits: Quick results and powerful reduction of symptoms, wide range of symptom applications -Costs: Addiction, tolerance effects, long term value concerns (waning effects and no end), concern over what's being "fixed" (car analogy)

Psychotherapy

• Treatment of psychological disorders and mental issues through methods that include interactive relationship between a trained therapist and a client or clients
• Belief: a number of mental disorders can be treated through a therapeutic/conversational approach
• Main goal: changing some aspect of our social world or thinking/thought processing/behavior in order to help with a mental disorder/abnormal behavior/mental issue

Psychoanalysis

• First approach to psychotherapy
• Developed and introduced by Sigmund Freud
• Based on his psychodynamic theory
• Primary attempt is to identify unconscious thoughts, memories, and emotions that are disturbing, bring them to our conscious mind, and then address them -Free associations, Dreams, Hypnosis, Talk therapy

Behavioral Approach

• Treatment technique that utilizes the principles of behaviorism to address abnormal behaviors/thoughts or disorders
• Begins with clear, well-defined behavioral goals, and then attempts to achieve those goals through different learning topics and the strengthening of behavioral connections
• Uses either classical or operant conditioning principles -Today, is usually only used for specific disorders/problems (e.g. anxiety disorders, drug abuse, and anorexia/bulimia)

Cognitive-Behavioral Approach

• Treatment technique that seeks to improve people's psychological well-being by changing their thoughts, emotions, and or behaviors that are linked to a disorder or stressful experiences
• Considered the "gold-standard"
• Emphasizes problems are a result of one's interpretation of their situation that they are experiencing, their interpretation of themselves, or the behaviors that they choose to elicit in different social situations
• Rational-emotive behavior therapy

Rational-emotive Behavior Therapy

Form of Cognitive Behavioral Theory that assumes that problems are a result of one's inappropriate/irrational emotional reactions to situations

Person/Client-centered Therapy

• Humanistic Approach
• Incorporates total acceptance and unconditional positive regard of the "client" in therapy sessions
• Involves mirroring and "client" directed conversations

Eclectic Therapy

Integrative psychotherapy

Anxiety Disorders

• Involve an intense experience of anxiety and a series of efforts to deal with it
• 4 major categories: Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder, Phobias, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

• Anxiety Disorder

Symptoms:

• Pervasive and free floating anxiety

• Continuously tense and jittery, and usually sleeplessness

Prevalence:

• 5.7% at one time in life (2-3% at any given time)

• Found more in women (2-3x), lower income, and marital issues

Treatment and Diagnosis:

• Symptoms present for at least 6 months

• Antidepressant medication & relaxation training

Panic Disorder

• Anxiety Disorder

Symptoms:

• Panic attacks

• Repeated incidences lead to fear of 'panic attack', and associated phobias

Prevalence:

• 4.7% of population at some time in life

• Highly heritable disorder

Diagnosis and Treatment:

• Multiple panic attacks within a short period of time

• Antidepressants and behavior therapy

• Note: Age and time associated with a decrease in occurrence rates

Panic Attack

• Symptom of Panic Disorder
• Minutes-long episodes of intense fear that something awful is going to happen
• Symptoms include heart palpitations, shortness of breath, choking sensations, trembling, etc.

Phobias

• Anxiety Disorder

Prevalence:

• 8.8% of population at any given year

• High co-morbidity with many anxiety disorders

• Women diagnosed 2-4x

Causes:

• Genetic link -Usually, specific experiences

Symptoms:

• Anxiety or irrational fear of a particular object or situation are extreme enough to interfere with everyday living

Treatments:

• Behavioral therapy

• Social-cognitive training

• If needed, pharmacological therapy (tranquilizers and antidepressant drugs)

OCD (Obsessive Compulsive Disorder)

• Anxiety Disorder (no longer in DSM-V)

Symptoms:

• Repetitive, irresistible acts performed to alleviate an ongoing anxious thoughts

Prevalence:

• 1.6% during lifetime
• Average, hard working perfectionists
• Genetic link

Diagnosis and Treatment: -Often mistaken for Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD) (OCPD is a personality disorder) -Exposure therapy -Most improve with or without treatment over time