Wider Research of Topic 1: The Changing Face of Organisations

"Think Manager–Think Male" Stereotype (Schein, 1973):

The foundational cognitive bias where successful managerial traits are overwhelmingly associated with men rather than women.

"Think Crisis–Think Female" Stereotype (Ryan et al., 2011)

The contextual shift in the TMTM stereotype where communal, feminine traits are suddenly preferred when a company is failing (used to explain the Glass Cliff)

Lack of Fit Model (Heilman, 1983)

Posits that discrimination occurs when there is a perceived incongruity between the stereotype of a minority group and the requirements of a specific job.

Second-Generation Gender Bias (Ibarra, Ely, & Kolb, 2013)

Invisible, structural practices that appear neutral but inherently favour the dominant group (e.g., traditional male career paths).

The Backlash Effect (Rudman & Glick, 2001)

The social and economic penalties women face when they violate gender norms by acting agentically/assertively.

The Female Leadership Advantage (Eagly & Carli, 2003)

The concept that contemporary shifts towards transformational leadership naturally favour the communal styles traditionally associated with women.

The Savior Effect (Cook & Glass, 2014)

The phenomenon where female/minority leaders appointed during a crisis are fired rapidly after short-term declines and replaced by white men (signalling a "return to normal").

Generationalised Thinking (Rudolph, Rauvola, & Zacher, 2018)

A critique of multigenerational management, arguing that grouping employees into rigid generations (e.g., Millennials) is biologically deterministic and scientifically flawed.

Lifespan Developmental Perspective (Posthuma & Campion, 2009)

The alternative to generational thinking, which views age as a continuous variable and emphasises that adaptability and learning can occur at any age.

Contact Hypothesis & Dual Identity Model (Iweins et al., 2013)

Frameworks used to explain how intergenerational contact reduces ageist stereotypes in the workplace.

Culture Specific-Etic Dilemma & Variform Universals (Den Hartog et al., 1999)

The framework showing that while some leadership traits are universally valued (Etic/Universal), how they are actually enacted is entirely culture-specific (Emic/Variform).

Cultural Intelligence (Earley & Ang, 2003)

An individual's capability to function and manage effectively in culturally diverse situations.

Framework of Workplace Inclusion (Shore et al., 2011)

The model stating that true inclusion only occurs when an employee experiences high belongingness alongside high uniqueness.

Integration-and-Learning Paradigm (Ely & Thomas, 2001)

A macro-organisational approach that views diversity not as a compliance issue, but as a core resource for innovation and learning.

Institutional Disadvantage (Noon, 2007)

Deeply embedded values and structures that systematically disadvantage minorities without conscious prejudice.

Workplace impact of intentional/unintentional age discrimination. (James et al., 2013)

Perceived discrimination against older workers is linked to lower employee engagement across all age groups, not just the older workers.

Social Information Processing Theory (Salancik and Pleffer, 1978)

Reduces stereotypes by emphasizing high-motivation, individualized, and deliberate processing of social cues rather than relying on automatic heuristics