DK CHING(HISTORY)

History

A systematic, often chronological narrative of significant events as relating to a particular people, country, or period, often including an explanation of their causes.

Civilization

An advanced state of human society marked by a relatively high level of cultural, technical, and political development.

Society

An enduring and cooperating large-scale community of people having common traditions, institutions, and identity, whose members have developed collective interests and beliefs through interaction with one another.

Culture

The integrated pattern of human knowledge, beliefs, and behaviors built up by a group of human beings and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Style

A particular or distinctive form of artistic expression characteristic of a person, people or period.

Expression

The manner in which meaning, spirit, or character is symbolized or communicated in the execution of an artistic work.

Prehistoric

Of, pertaining to, or existing in the time prior to the recording of human events, knowledge of which is gained mainly through archaeological discoveries, study and research.

Stone Age

The earliest known period of human culture, preceding the Bronze Age and the Iron Age and characterized by the use of stone implements and weapons.

Neolithic

Of or relating to the last phase of the Stone Age, characterized by the cultivation of grain crops, domestication of animals, settlement of villages, manufacture of pottery and textiles, and use of polished stone implements; thought to have begun 9000-8000 B.C.

Mesopotamia

An ancient region in western Asia between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, comprising the lands of Sumer and Akkad and occupied successively by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Persians, now part of Iraq.

Fertile Crescent

An agricultural region arching from the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea in the west to Iraq in the east; the location of humankind's earliest cultures.

Catal Huyuk

A Neolithic settlement in Anatolia, dated 6500-5000 B.C, One of the world's earliest cities, it had mud-brick fortifications and houses, frescoed shrines, a fully developed agriculture and extensive trading in obsidian, the chief material for tool-making.

Anatolia

A vast plateau between the Black Mediterranean, and Aegean Seas, synonymous with the peninsula of Asia Minor; today comprises most of Turkey.

Sumerian architecture

The architecture developed by the sumerians who dominated southern Mesopotamia from the 4th to the end of 3rd millennium B.C. characterized by monumental temples of sun-dried brick faced with burnt or glazed brick, often built upon the ruins of their predecessors.

Sumer

An ancient region in southern Mesopotamia, where a number of independent cities and city-states were established as early as 5000 B.C. A number of cities, as Eridu, Uruk, and Ur, are major archaeological sites.

Tell

an artificial mound accumulated from the remains of one or more ancient settlements; often used in the Middle East as part of a place name.

Egyptian architecture

The architecture of the ancient civilization that flourished along the Nile River in northwest Africa from before 3000 B.C. to its annexation by Rome in 30 B.C. characterized esp. by axial planning of massive masonry tombs and temples, the use of trabeated construction with precise stonework and the decoration of battered walls with pictographic carving in relief. A preoccupation with eternity and the afterlife dominated the building of these funerary monuments and temples, which reproduced the features of domestic architecture but on a massive scale using stone for permanence.

Minoan architecture

The architecture of the Bronze Age civilization that flourished on Crete from about 3000 to 1100 B.C. named after the legendary King Minos of Knossos and characterized by the elaborate palaces at Knossus and Phaetus.

Bronze Age

A period of human history that began 4000-3000 B.C. following the Stone Age and preceding the Iron Age, characterized by the use of bronze implements.

Harapa

A Bronze Age culture that flourished in the Indus valley c2300-1500 B.C.

Chinese architecture

The indigenous architecture of vast country in eastern Asia whose civilization has continually evolved and survived longer than any other nation in the world. Despite the marked diversity in the architecture of various regions caused by differences in geographic and climatic conditions, a unique system of wood frame construction gradually took shape over several millennia of innovation and synthesis and exerted a profound influence over the architecture of Korea, Japan, and Southeast Asia.

Yang-shao

A Neolithic culture in China centered around the fertile plains of the Yellow River, characterized by pit dwellings and fine pottery painted in geometric designs.

Xia

A legendary dynasty in China 2205-1766 B.C.

Shang

A Chinese dynasty c1800 B.C. - 1030 B.C. marked by the introduction of writing, the development of an urban civilization and a mastery of bronze casting. Also Yin.

Lascaux Cave

A cave in Lascaux, France containing wall painting and engraving thought to date form c13,000-8500 B.C.

Pre-classic

Of or pertaining to Mesoamerican culture form 2200 B.C. to A.D. 100.

Hittite architecture

The architecture of the Hittite Empire which dominated Asia Minor and northern Syria from about 2000 to 1200 B.C. characterized by fortifications of cyclopean stone masonry and gateways with portal sculptures.

Assyrian Architecture

The Mesopotamian architecture developed under the Assyrian king-emperors of the 9th and 7th centuries B.C. Within city walls strengthened by towers with crenelated battlements, palaces took precedence over religious buildings. Vaulting played a greater role than in southern Mesopotamia and polychrome glazed brickwork showed the influence of Egyptian decoration.

Neo-Babylonian architecture

The Mesopotamia architecture that developed after the decline of the Assyrian Empire, deriving much from Assyrian architecture and enhanced by figured designs of heraldic animals in glazed brickwork.

Hanging Gardens of Babylon

A series of irrigated ornamental gardens planted on the terraces of the Citadel, the palace complex in ancient Babylon, regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of the World.

Persian architecture

The architecture developed under the Achaemenid dynasty of kings who ruled ancient Persia form 550 B.C. until its conquest by Alexander the Great in 331 B.C. characterized by the synthesis of architectural elements of surrounding countries as Assyria, Egypt and Ionian Greece.

Persian

A telamone portrayed in Persian dress.

Parthian architecture

The architecture developed under Partian rule in Iran and western Mesopotamia from the 3rd century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D. combining classical with Indigenous features.

Code of Hammurabi

A Babylonian legal code instituted by Hammurabi in the mid-18th century B.C. based on principles absorbed from Sumerian culture.

Mycenaean architecture

The architecture of the Aegean civilization that spread its influence from Mycenae in southern Greece to many parts of the Mediterranean region from about 1600 to 1100 B.C. characterized by shaft graves, monumental beehive tombs, and palaces fortified with cyclopean walls.

Greek architecture

The architecture of the civilization that flourished on the Greek peninsula, in Asia Minor, on the north coast of Africa and in the western Mediterranean until the establishment of Roman dominion in A.D. 146, characterized by a system of construction based on rules of form and proportion. Temples of post-and-lintel construction were continually refined in a quest for perfection and their design influenced a wide range of secular, civic buildings.

Hellenic

Of or pertaining to ancient Greek history, culture, The architecture of the Aegean and art. Esp. before the time of Alexander the Great.

Hellenistic

Of or pertaining to Greek history, culture, and art from the time of Alexander the Great's death 323 B.C. through the 1st century B.C. during which Greek dynasties were established in Egypt, Syria and Persia and Greek culture was modified by foreign elements.

Etruscan architecture

The architecture of the Etruscan people in west-central Italy form the 8th to 3rd centuries B.C. before the rise of Rome, its construction methods, esp. that of the true stone arch, influenced later Roman architecture.

Indian architecture

The architecture of the Indian subcontinent, from the Indus valley culture of the Harappa to the Mauryan era, and later to period of foreign domination and indigenous rule, characterized esp. by Hindu and Buddhist monuments, sometimes sharing the same site, and rhythmic, stratified multiplication of motifs and profuse carved ornamentation, often combining the religious and the sensuous.

Maurya

A member of an ancient Indian people who united northern India and established an empire c320 B.C. architecture from this period shows the cultural influence of Achaemenid Persia and the first use of dressed store.

Zhou

A Chinese dynasty, C1030 B.C. to 256 B.C. marked by the division of China into spate feudal states and the emergence of Confucianism and Taoism, which gave thrust to all subsequent Chinese culture.

Confucianism

A philosophy that dominated China until the early 20th century an ethical system based on the teachings of the Chinese philosopher, Confucius, c561-478 B.C. emphasizing love for humanity, harmony in thought and conduct, devotion to family and reverence for parents, including the spirits of one's ancestors.

Taoism

Chinese philosophy and religion considered next to Confucianism in importance. Based on the teachings of the Chinese philosopher, Lao-tzu c604-531 B.C. It emphasized a life of simplicity and noninterference with the course of natural events in order to attain a happy existence in harmony with the Tao, As a religion It dates from A.D. 134 becoming popular during the decline of the Han dynasty and Introduction of Buddhism to China.

Tao

The way; the creative principle that orders the universe.

Great Wall of China

A fortified wall commenced under the Zhou dynasty to protect China against nomads from the north and serve as a means of communication. Various sections were built and connected until, during the Ming dynasty, 1368-1644, it extended for 1500 miles, from southern Kansu province to the coast east of Peking. Rebuilt and refaced repeatedly. It is the only human-made construction visible from outer space.

Quin

A dynasty - in China, 221-203 B.C. marked by the emergence of a centralized government and the construction of much of the Great Wall of China.

Olmec architecture

The architecture of the Mesoamerican civilization which flourished c1200-500 B.C. in the tropical lowlands of the Mexican Gulf Coast, characterized by temple pyramids and large ceremonial centers.

Chavin

A Peruvian culture lasting from c1000 B.C. to c200 B.C. based on the worship of the jaguar god and characterized by excellent stone sculpture elaborate gold work, and remarkable ceramics named after the town of that name in central Peru, where a complex of massive stone buildings with subterranean galleries surround formal courtyards.

Mochica

A pre-Incan culture that flourished on the northern coast of Peru form c200 B.C. to A.D. 700, noted for its pottery and the colossal Temple of the Sun, A terraced pyramid made entirely of adobe bricks.

Classical architecture

The architecture of ancient Greece and Rome on which the Italian Renaissance and subsequent styles, as the Baroque and the Classic Revival based their development.

Roman architecture

The architecture of the ancient Roman people, characterized by massive brick and concrete construction employing such features as the semicircular arch, the barrel and groin vaults, and the dome, a simplicity and grandeur of massing often combined with elaborate detailing, the elaboration of the Greek orders as purely decorative motifs for the adornment of facades and interiors, and the use of marble linings, mosaics, and molded stucco in interior.

Rome

A city in the central part of Italy which, according to tradition, was founded by Romulus and Remus in 750 B.C. Ancient capital of the Roman Empire and site of Vatican City, the seat of authority of the Roman Catholic Church.

Sassanian architecture

The architecture prevalent in Persia under the Sassanian dynasty that ruled A.D. 226-651, forming a link between the older Mesopotamian traditions and the Byzantine, and characterized by palaces with elliptical vaults and domes set on squiches and stuccoed masonry walls articulated by pilasters and cornices.

Early Christian Architecture

The final phase of Roman architecture, following the adoption of Christianity as the state religion by Constantine in A.D. 313 and lasting until the coronation of Charlemagne in A.D. 800 characterized by churches planned for congregational worship esp. the basilica, coincident with and related to the rise of Byzantine architecture.

Byzantine architecture

The architecture of the astern sphere of the later Roman Empire, developing from the late Roman and early Christian antecedents in the 5th century and influencing church buildings in Greece, Italy, and elsewhere for more than a thousand years; Characterized by masonry construction, round arches, shallow domes carried on pendentives and the extensive use of rich frescoes colored glass mosaics, and marble revetments to cover whole interiors.

Medieval architecture

The architecture of the European Middle Ages comprising the architecture of the Byzantine, pre-Romanesque, Romanesque, and Gothic periods.

Middle Ages

The time in European history between classical antiquity and the Renaissance, often dated from A.D. 476 when Romuls, Augustulus, the last Roman emperor of the Western Roman Empire, was deposed to about 1500.

Dark Ages

The early part of the Middle Ages, form about A.D. 476 to c1100.

Gupta

The dynasty of the Mauryan Empire in northern India, A.D. 320-540, whose court was the center of classical Indian art and literature, the earliest substantial architectural remains are from this period.

Pallava

A Hindu state established in southern India about A.D. 350: contributed to the expansion of Indian culture into Southeast Asia.

Dravidian

A style of Indian architecture in the Pallava period, named after the language spoken in southern India.

Pre-Columbian

Of or pertaining to the Americas before the voyages of Columbus.

Mesoamerica

The area extending from central Mexico and the Yucatan Peninsula to Honduras and Nicaragua in which pre-Columbian civilizations flourished. These cultures excelled in astronomy and the measurement of time, and shared temple pyramids and a pantheon of deities including sun, wind and rain gods.

Classic

Of or pertaining to Mesoamerican culture from A.D. 100 to 900.

Mayan architecture

The architecture of the Mesoamerican civilization of the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, and part of Honduras, from the 1st century A.D. to its peak in the 9th century, characterized by magnificent ceremonial centers with temple- pyramids, ritual ball courts, spacious plazas and palaces with sculptured facades.

Zapotec architecture

The eclectic architecture of the Amerindian civilization which flourished c500 B.C. to A.D. 1000 in the highland valley of Oaxaca in southern Mexico, assimilating influences from the Olmecs and from Teotihuacan during the Classic period.

Tiahuanaco

A pre-incan culture existing from about 300 B.C. to A.D. 900, chiefly in Peru and Bolivia characterized by monolithic stone carving, polychrome pottery and bronze artifacts.

Romanesque architecture

A style of architecture emerging in Italy and western Europe in the 9th century and lasting until the advent of Gothic architecture in the 12th century, comprising a variety of related regional styles and characterized by heavy, articulated masonry construction with narrow openings, the use of the round arch and barrel vault, the development of the vaulting rib and shaft and the introduction of central and western towers for churches.

Carolingian architecture

The early Romanesque architecture of the Frankish dynasty that reigned in France A.D. 751-987 and in Germany until A.D. 911, characterized by a revival of the forms of classical antiquity modified by ecclesiastical requirements.

Lombard architecture

The early Romanesque architecture of northern Italy during the 7th and 8th centuries characterized by the use of Early Christian and Roman forms and the development of the ribbed vault and vaulting shaft.

Ottonian architecture

The early Romanesque architecture of the German dynasty that ruled as emperors of the Holy Roman Empire from A.D. 962 to 1002, characterized by the development of forms derived from Carolingian and Byzantine concepts.

Anglo-Saxon architecture

The early Romanesque architecture of England before the Norman Conquest in 1068, characterized by the translation of timber prototypes into stone.

Norman architecture

The Romanesque architecture introduced from Normandy into England before the Norman Conquest and flourishing until the rise of Gothic architecture c1200, characterized by the building of great Benedictine abbeys, the two- tower façade supplementing a central tower over the crossing, and the use of geometric ornamentation.

Norman Conquest

The conquest of England by the Normans under William the Conqueror, in 1066.

Islamic architecture

The architecture of the Muslim peoples from the 7th century on developing in the wake of Muhammadan conquests of diverse territories from Spain in the west to India in the east and absorbing elements of art and architecture from each region; characterized by the development of the mosque as a distinct building type, masonry domes and tunnel vaults, round and horseshoe arches and rich surface decorations incorporating calligraphy and floral motifs in a geometric framework because of the ban on human and animal representations, Also referred to as Muslim architecture.

Islam

The religious faith of Muslims, based on the teachings of the prophet Muhammad, the central themes of which are belief in the one God, Allah, the existence of Paradise and Hell, and the universal Judgement Day to come, Also, the civilization built on Islamic faith. Also called Muhammadanism.

Muhammad

Arab prophet and founder of Islam A.D. 570- 632. Also, Mohammed.

Moorish architecture

The Islamic architecture of North Africa and esp. of the regions of Spain under Moorish domination,characterized by the building of large mosques and elaborate fortress-palaces.

Moor

A member of the Muslim people of northwest Africa who invaded Spain in the 8th century and occupied it until 1492.

Mozarabic style

A style of Spanish architecture produce from the 9th to the 5th centuries by Christians under Moorish influence, characterized by the horseshoe arch and other Moorish features.

Japanese architecture

The architecture of the civilization that emerged on the Japanese archipelago off the east coast of Asia, characterized by a synthesis of seminal Ideas from China and native conditions producing a distinctive style characterized by lightness, delicacy, and refinement.

Nara

A period in Japanese history, A.D. 710-794, characterized by the adoption of Chinese culture and form of government named after the first permanent capital and chief Buddhist center in ancient Japan.

Heian

Of or pertaining to the period in Japan, A.D. 785 - 1185, characterized by the modification and naturalization of Ideas and institutions that were earlier introduced from China. During this time Indigenous feudalism superseded Chinese-based social order and Japanese architecture developed in Isolation from China.

Mixtec architecture

The architecture of the Amerindian culture centered in the Oaxaca Valley of Mexico from about A.D. 800 to the Spanish conquest, characterized by great stone masses, the use of interior stone columns, and the highly detailed fretwork of interior and exterior friezes.

Toltec architecture

The architecture of the Amerindian people who settled in central Mexico around A.D. 900 and who are traditionally credited with laying the foundation of Aztec culture, characterized by colossal basalt telemones of Toltec warriors, colonnades several ranks deep, and stone panels carved with human-headed jaguars and symbols of Quetzaticoatl, set in plain wall surfaces.

Quetzalcoatl

Priest-ruler of the Toltec people who was deified as the feathered serpent god called by that name.

Gothic Architecture

The style of architecture originating in France in the 12th century and existing in the western half of Europe through the middle of the 16 century, characterized by the building of great cathedrals, a progressive lightening and heightening of structure, and the use of the pointed arch, ribbed vault, and a system of richly decorated fenestration.

Early French style

The early of the three phases of French Gothic architecture, characterized by the pointed arch and geometric tracery.

Rayonnant style

The middle phase of French Gothic architecture from the end of the 13th through the late 14th centuries, characterized by circular windows with radiating lines of tracery.

Flamboyant style

The final phase of French Gothic architecture form the late 14th through the middle of the 16th centuries, characterized by flame-like tracery, intricacy of detailing and frequent complication of interior space.

Early English style

The first of the three phases of English Gothic architecture from the late 12th through the 13th centuries, characterized by the lancet window and plate tracery.

Decorated style

The second phase of the three phases of English Gothic architecture from the late 13th through the late 14th centuries characterized by rich tracery, elaborate ornamental vaulting and refinement of stone cutting techniques.

Geometric style

The early development of the decorated style in the late 13th and early 14th centuries, characterized by the use of geometric tracery.

Curvilinear style

The later development of the decorated style in the second half of the 14th century, characterized by the use of curvilinear tracery.

Perpendicular style / Rectilinear style

The final phase of Gothic architecture prevailing from the late 14th through the early 16th centuries, characterized by perpendicular tracery, fine intricate stonework, and elaborate fan vaults.

Renaissance architecture

The various adaptations of Italian Renaissance architecture that occurred throughout Europe until the advent of Mannerism and the Baroque in the 16th and 17th centuries, characterized by the use of Italian Renaissance forms and motifs in more or less traditional buildings.

Italian Renaissance architecture

The group of architectural styles that originated in Italy in the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an emphasis on symmetry, exact mathematical relationships between parts, and an overall effect of simplicity and repose.

Early Renaissance

A style of Italian Renaissance art and architecture developed during the 15th century, characterized by the development of linear perspective, chiaroscuro and in building, by the free and inventive use of classical details.

Minister

Originally, a monastery church; later, any large or important church, as cathedral or the principal church of a town.