Psych Test Bank

How does the text define psychology?

a. As the science of behavior

b. As the study of the mind

c. As the study of behavior, cognition, and emotion

d. As the study of the psyche

e. As the study of the brain

a. As the science of behavior

What is the ultimate goal of psychology?

a. To discover how the brain controls behavior

b. To explore the human psyche

c. To solve the problems of humankind

d. To understand human behavior

e. To control behavior

d. To understand human behavior

What does the first step in explaining behavior involve?

a. Discovering it

b. Describing it

c. Discussing it

d. Demonstrating it

e. Debating it

b. Describing it

If you were a psychologist who wanted to explain the phenomenon of road rage, what would

be your first step?

a. Discovering it

b. Debating it

c. Discussing it

d. Demonstrating it

e. Describing it

e. Describing it

What do psychologists call the events responsible for the occurrence of a behavior?

a. Consequent events

b. Subsequent events

c. Causal events

d. Confounding events

e. Cognitive events

c. Causal events

According to the textbook, why might different psychologists study the same behavior in

different ways?

a. More contemporary approaches are considered superior to older methods.

b. They may simply be interested in different levels of explanation.

c. Biological methods are considered generally more fundamental than all other methods.

d. Biological methods are considered generally superior to most other methods.

e. This is an untrue assumption; psychologists wouldn't be able to agree on anything if they

studied the same behavior in different ways.

b. They may simply be interested in different levels of explanation.

Which area of psychology is most likely to involve studying how the nervous system and the

endocrine system affect behavior?

a. Comparative psychology

b. Physiological psychology

c. Psychophysiology

d. Behavior analysis

e. Social psychology

b. Physiological psychology

Dr. Thraill's research has focused on addiction and how drugs affect the brain and nervous

system. What would her area of research most likely be?

a. Developmental psychology

b. Cognitive neuroscience

c. Comparative psychology

d. Physiological psychology

e. Social psychology

d. Physiological psychology

Which area of psychological research is most likely to examine the evolution of adaptive

behavior in a given species?

a. Behavior analysis

b. Comparative psychology

c. Developmental psychology

d. Physiological psychology

e. Cognitive psychology

b. Comparative psychology

Which area of psychological research is most likely to study behaviors such as courting,

mating, and parenting?

a. Cognitive psychology

b. Personality psychology

c. Comparative psychology

d. Clinical psychology

e. Developmental psychology

c. Comparative psychology

Dr. Lind is a psychologist who studies the effects of different drugs on the behavior of

different species. Which research area does Dr. Lind's work best represent?

a. Clinical psychology

b. Cognitive psychology

c. Counseling psychology

d. Comparative psychology

e. Developmental psychology

d. Comparative psychology

Dr. Shapiro has developed a strain of rats that is especially susceptible to the effects of

certain drugs. These rats become addicted more easily than other strains. Which area of

research does Dr. Shapiro's work best represent?

a. Behavior analysis

b. Behavior genetics

c. Cognitive psychology

d. Cognitive neuroscience

e. Developmental psychology

b. Behavior genetics

What does cognitive psychology emphasize?

a. Behavior

b. Human interaction

c. Mental processes and complex behavior

d. Individual differences in thought and behavior

e. Brain structures and behavior

c. Mental processes and complex behavior

Which area of psychological research emphasizes explaining behavior in terms of mental

processes such as attention, perception, and thinking?

a. Behavior analysis

b. Comparative psychology

c. Physiological psychology

d. Cognitive psychology

e. Cognitive neuroscience

d. Cognitive psychology

Dr. Fleming is a psychologist who develops tests used to assess behavioral and cognitive

problems caused by abnormal brain processes. Which area of research does Dr. Fleming's

work best represent?

a. cognitive neuroscience.

b. behavior analysis.

c. physiological psychology.

d. behavior genetics.

e. comparative psychology.

a. cognitive neuroscience.

Which area of psychology involves the study of cognitive, physiological, and social changes

that occur as people grow older?

a. Social psychology

b. Developmental psychology

c. Personality psychology

d. Clinical psychology

e. Physiological psychology

b. Developmental psychology

Dr. Burkhart is a psychologist whose primary interest involves attitude formation and

change. Which area of research does Dr. Burkhart's work best represent?

a. Cognitive psychology

b. Developmental psychology

c. Social psychology

d. Personality psychology

e. Clinical psychology

c. Social psychology

Which area of psychological research is most closely associated with the study of

individual differences in temperament and patterns of behavior?

a. Cross-cultural psychology

b. Social psychology

c. Personality psychology

d. Cognitive psychology

e. Clinical psychology

c. Personality psychology

Which area of psychological research focuses on how cognitive or social features of human

behavior may have provided early humans with a competitive advantage over other

species?

a. Developmental psychology

b. Cross-cultural psychology

c. Evolutionary psychology

d. Social psychology

e. Personality psychology

c. Evolutionary psychology

Dr. Critchfield is a psychologist who studies the similarities and differences among

societies in terms of how infants and children are raised. Which research area does Dr.

Critchfield's work best represent?

a. Clinical psychology

b. Personality psychology

c. Developmental psychology

d. Cross-cultural psychology

e. Social psychology

d. Cross-cultural psychology

Which area of psychological research is most likely involved in attempting to help people

solve their problems?

a. Clinical psychology

b. Cognitive psychology

c. Developmental psychology

d. Comparative psychology

e. Evolutionary psychology

a. Clinical psychology

Dr. El Sheikh is a psychologist who specializes in identifying and treating behavioral

problems that are caused by nervous system disorders or injury. Which type of

psychologist does Dr. El Sheikh best represent?

a. Cognitive neuroscientist

b. Community psychologist

c. Clinical neuropsychologist

d. Health psychologist

e. Community parapsychologist

c. Clinical neuropsychologist

In solving problems, community psychologists focus on __________ whereas clinical

psychologists focus on __________.

a. changing people's attitudes; the welfare of the individual in the social system

b. the welfare of the individual; the welfare of the organization

c. the welfare of individuals in the social system; changing the individual

d. the impact of the environment on the individual; the welfare of the organization

e. the welfare of the social system; changing the environment

c. the welfare of individuals in the social system; changing the individual

Dr. Chapwick is a psychologist whose primary interest is to promote healthy behavior and

lifestyles in order to prevent illness. Which type of psychologist does Dr. Chapwick best

represent?

a. Health psychologist

b. School psychologist

c. Consumer psychologist

d. Clinical psychologist

e. Community psychologist

a. Health psychologist

Dr. Tucker works with young people in dealing with behavior problems that they have at

school. Which type of psychologist does Dr. Tucker best represent?

a. Cognitive psychologist

b. School psychologist

c. Clinical psychologist

d. Developmental psychologist

e. Community psychologist

b. School psychologist

Which type of psychologist would you expect to find, in a supermarket or mall, studying

patterns of shopping behavior?

a. Consumer psychologist

b. Clinical psychologist

c. Human factors psychologist

d. Organizational psychologist

e. Community psychologist

a. Consumer psychologist

Which type of psychologist works within existing social systems for changes that will

positively affect the members of those systems?

a. Consumer psychologist

b. Health psychologist

c. Organizational psychologist

d. Community psychologist

e. Human factors psychologist

d. Community psychologist

Dr. Johnston is a psychologist who consults with different companies to improve the

working conditions of their employees. Which type of psychologist does Dr. Johnston best

represent?

a. Community psychologist

b. Organizational psychologist

c. Consumer psychologist

d. Health psychologist

e. Engineering psychologist

b. Organizational psychologist

Which of the subfields of psychology includes the study of the workplace as a primary

goal?

a. Organizational psychology

b. Community psychology

c. Health psychology

d. Consumer psychology

e. School psychology

a. Organizational psychology

Which type of psychologist is involved in the design of more efficient and safer machines?

a. Organizational psychologists

b. Consumer psychologists

c. Health psychologists

d. Engineering psychologists

e. Forensic psychologists

d. Engineering psychologists

Dr. McGlynn is a psychologist who works for a large automobile maker designing in-dash

displays. Which type of psychologist does Dr. McGlynn best represent?

a. Health psychologist

b. Organizational psychologist

c. Engineering psychologist

d. Consumer psychologist

e. Forensic psychologist

c. Engineering psychologist

Which psychologists specialize in the application of psychological knowledge to legal

issues?

a. Consumer psychologists

b. Community psychologists

c. Clinical psychologists

d. Organizational psychologists

e. Forensic psychologists

e. Forensic psychologists

Chris argues that all living things possess spirits that control them. For instance, he

believes that trees and other plants grow upward because the spirits within them wish to

be closer to the warmth of the sun. Chris is a proponent of

a. animism.

b. materialism.

c. empiricism.

d. dualism.

e. structuralism.

a. animism.

As a science, psychology makes the assumption that behavior is subject to

a. will.

b. physical laws.

c. reflexes.

d. animism.

e. dualism.

b. physical laws.

Psychology depends on the scientific method in order to be

a. rational.

b. subjective.

c. objective.

d. dualistic.

e. responsible.

c. objective.

According to Descartes, to understand the world, one must use observation and reason in

order to

a. understand how it is constructed.

b. reconcile human experience with God's revelations.

c. discover its spiritual nature.

d. identify the levels of the world's reality.

e. explore the unconscious processes that are part of the world.

a. understand how it is constructed.

In Descartes's view, animals were nothing more than

a. creations of God to be used to satisfy humankind's needs and pleasures.

b. creatures controlled by animism.

c. mechanical devices.

d. dualistic entities that serve few, if any, useful functions.

e. spirits.

c. mechanical devices.

In Descartes's view the critical distinction between people and the rest of the natural world

was that humans possess

a. emotions.

b. reflexes.

c. a knowledge of God.

d. a mind.

e. an unconscious.

d. a mind.

The idea that all reality can be divided into either mind or matter is called

a. realism.

b. dualism.

c. materialism.

d. empiricism.

e. rationalism.

b. dualism.

According to Descartes, humans consist of __________,which is consistent with his

__________ perspective.

a. mind; reflexive

b. senses; empiricist

c. matter; materialist

d. mind and matter; dualist

e. mind; rationalist

d. mind and matter; dualist

Descartes argued that

a. the pineal body is the physical housing for the mind.

b. mind and matter interact.

c. the mind is made of ordinary matter.

d. dualism explains the origins of the mind.

e. all of the body's actions are driven by the mind.

b. mind and matter interact.

According to Descartes, the movements of the body are caused by

a. the flow of fluid from the brain to the nerves that then cause the muscles to contract.

b. stimulation of the pineal body to release specific chemicals that then travel through the

c. specific commands from the brain that cause specific muscles to move.

d. spirits within the mind that travel through the nervous system.

e. electrical flow through the nerves to the muscles.

bloodstream to the appropriate set of muscles.

a. the flow of fluid from the brain to the nerves that then cause the muscles to contract.

Although hydraulic moving statues are more simple than the more complex human body,

a. subsystem

Descartes believed the human body functioned according to similar principles. The statues

are a __________ of human body function.

b. network

c. model

d. exemplar

e. microsystem

c. model

Based on his observations of moving statues, Descartes formulated a(n) __________ model

a. chemical

of reflexes.

b. psychological

c. electrical

d. mechanical

e. magnetic

d. mechanical

Marni believes that she can discover truth by using reason and logical thinking. Like

Descartes, she advocates

a. dualism.

b. materialism.

c. rationalism.

d. empiricism.

e. animism.

c. rationalism.

Descartes is to __________ as Locke is to __________.

a. empiricism; rationalism

b. animism; empiricism

c. rationalism; dualism

d. dualism; animism

e. rationalism; empiricism

e. rationalism; empiricism

The philosopher who rejected the notion that ideas were innate in the human mind was

a. Descartes.

b. Locke.

c. Berkeley.

d. Mill.

e. James.

b. Locke.

Who argued that the mind is like a "cleaned slate" at birth and subsequently is written

upon by experience?

a. Mill

b. Descartes

c. Berkeley

d. Locke

e. James

d. Locke

Who argued that knowledge of events in the world also requires assumptions based on

past experiences?

a. Descartes

b. Berkeley

c. Locke

d. Mill

e. James

b. Berkeley

Locke is to __________ as Mill is to __________.

a. animism; empiricism

b. materialism; empiricism

c. rationalism; materialism

d. empiricism; materialism

e. empiricism; animism

d. empiricism; materialism

What is the philosophical position that reality can only be known by understanding the

physical world, of which the mind is a part?

a. Rationalism

b. Dualism

c. Materialism

d. Empiricism

e. Behaviorism

c. Materialism

James Mill is known for his view that the mind and the body are

a. inseparable.

b. dualistic.

c. material.

d. reflexive.

e. observable.

c. material.

Mill differed from Descartes because he suggested __________ whereas Descartes

suggested __________.

a. the mind is composed of matter; only the body is composed of matter

b. truth can be discovered through reason; truth can be discovered through observation

c. fluid from the brain creates action; human will creates action

d. the mind is observable; the mind is not observable

e. the body controls the mind; the mind controls the body

a. the mind is composed of matter; only the body is composed of matter

The doctrine of specific nerve energies is most closely associated with

a. Galvani.

b. Müller.

c. Helmholtz.

d. Flourens.

e. Descartes.

b. Müller.

Who disproved Descartes' hydraulic model of muscle contraction by showing that they

contracted in response to electrical stimulation?

a. Galvani

b. Müller

c. Helmholtz

d. Flourens

e. Mill

a. Galvani

One important implication of the doctrine of specific nerve energies was that

a. all nerves ultimately lead to the brain.

b. the mind is made of nerves.

c. different parts of the brain may have different functions.

d. electrical stimulation of the brain could produce lasting damage.

e. nerves communicate unidirectionally from the brain to different parts of the body.

c. different parts of the brain may have different functions.

Who pioneered the method of experimental ablation?

a. Fritsch and Hitzig

b. Flourens

c. Broca

d. Helmholtz

e. Müller

b. Flourens

Flourens provided experimental support for the doctrine of specific nerve energies by

showing that the removal of different parts of the nervous system produced

a. only temporary effects.

b. a general impairment rather than specific impairments.

c. few, if any, noticeable effects.

d. the same effects.

e. different effects.

e. different effects.

Broca's research suggested that damage to the __________ causes deficits in __________.

a. front part of the brain; tasting

b. rear of the brain; seeing

c. right side of the brain; hearing

d. left side of the brain; speaking

e. right side of the brain; speaking

d. left side of the brain; speaking

The physiologists who introduced the use of electrical stimulation to map the functions of

different parts of the brain were

a. Fritsch and Hitzig.

b. Flourens and Broca.

c. Helmholtz and Weber.

d. Fritsch and Helmholtz.

e. Broca and Weber.

a. Fritsch and Hitzig.

Through the postmortem study of the brains of people who have experienced brain injury

or damage, it is possible to correlate specific behaviors with specific regions of the brain.

Psychologists and physiologists who study the relationship of behavior and brain function

in this way are building upon the earlier work of

a. Helmholtz.

b. Flourens.

c. Broca.

d. Galvani.

e. Müller.

c. Broca.

Who was an important advocate of the claim that mental phenomena could be explained

by physiological processes?

a. Helmholtz.

b. Broca.

c. Galvani.

d. Müller.

e. Fluorens.

a. Helmholtz.

Helmholtz's finding that the nerve impulse traveling through the body is considerably

slower than electricity traveling through a wire, led to the important realization that

a. the nerve impulse is not electrical in its nature.

b. nerve impulses are more complex than simple electrical current.

c. specific structures within the body impede the speed with which

d. the brain and nervous system could be studied safely by stimulating them with weak

e. electrical stimulation of the body could potentially damage the nervous system.

electrical current travels through the nervous system.

electrical current.

b. nerve impulses are more complex than simple electrical current.

Who first established that people are able to distinguish between

differences in sensory experiences, such as differences in

brightness or loudness, in ways that follow orderly laws?

a. Helmholtz.

b. Broca.

c. Flourens.

d. Weber.

e. Müller.

d. Weber.

Through their research on human responses to physical stimuli, Helmholtz and Weber

contributed to the new field of

a. experimental ablation.

b. perception.

c. neurophysics.

d. physiopsychology.

e. psychophysics.

e. psychophysics.

Psychology as a science began in __________ in the __________.

a. Germany; late nineteenth century

b. France; middle nineteenth century

c. England; early twentieth century

d. the United States; early nineteenth century

e. Canada; late nineteenth century

a. Germany; late nineteenth century

What was Wundt's approach to investigating psychological phenomena labeled by one of

his students?

a. Structuralism

b. Functionalism

c. Gestalt psychology

d. Psychophysics

e. Structural-functionalism

a. Structuralism

Which approach to psychology relies on the perspective that the mind consists of the

elements of consciousness, such as ideas and sensations?

a. Functionalism

b. Gestalt psychology

c. Humanistic psychology

d. Structuralism

e. Behaviorism

d. Structuralism

As Dr. Robbins presents stimuli to the participants in her study, she asks them to describe

the elements of their perceptual responses. What is Dr. Robbins asking her participants to

do?

a. Conduct rational analysis

b. Infer

c. Report their unconscious observation

d. Introspect

e. Reflect

d. Introspect

Among Wundt's lasting contributions to psychology is

a. the introduction of the functionalist perspective.

b. the use of introspection to study the elements of complex perceptions.

c. the establishment of psychology as a separate experimental science, independent of philosophy.

d. the theory of psychic evolution.

e. the introduction of the structuralist perspective.

c. the establishment of psychology as a separate experimental science, independent of philosophy.

Charles Darwin's theory of evolution had its greatest impact on which of the early schools

of psychology?

a. structuralism

b. functionalism

c. behaviorism

d. Gestalt psychology

e. humanistic psychology

b. functionalism

Structuralism is to __________ as functionalism is to __________.

a. the elements of consciousness; the purpose of consciousness

b. introspection; the consequences of behavior

c. the purpose of consciousness; the elements of consciousness

d. the physiological basis of behavior; the evolutionary basis of behavior

e. unnobservable behavior; consciousness

a. the elements of consciousness; the purpose of consciousness

The emphasis of functionalism was squarely on

a. understanding private mental events.

b. discovering the physiological basis of consciousness.

c. the biological significance of behavior.

d. solving the mysteries of the unconscious mind.

e. the relationship between the mind and body.

c. the biological significance of behavior.

Which psychologist is most closely associated with the rise of functionalism?

a. James

b. Watson

c. Wundt

d. Freud

e. Baldwin

a. James

The study of mental operations, as opposed to the study of mental structures, is the way

that James Angell defined

a. psychology.

b. behaviorism.

c. Gestalt psychology.

d. functionalism.

e. structuralism.

d. functionalism.

James Angell's description of the basic principles of functionalism includes all of the

following EXCEPT

a. functionalism studies mental operations and their functions.

b. mental processes are part of the biological activity of an organism.

c. there is no meaningful distinction between mind and body.

d. mental processes are a product of the organism's evolutionary history.

e. functionalism studies unconscious as well as conscious mental activities.

e. functionalism studies unconscious as well as conscious mental activities.

Freud's approach to understanding human behavior was based on

a. his own scientific research.

b. Wundt's and James's writings on human behavior.

c. his observation of patients.

d. his negative reaction to Skinner's proposal that all human behavior is caused by

e. applying the scientific method to large groups of subjects.

environmental events.

c. his observation of patients.

Dr. Hardy is a follower of Freud's psychodynamic theory. Like Wundt he emphasizes

__________, but unlike Wundt, he emphasizes __________.

a. functions of the mind; unconscious processes

b. the biological basis of behavior; the material basis of the mind

c. introspective methodology; structures of the mind

d. structures of the mind; functions of the mind

e. organization of the mind; importance of information processing

d. structures of the mind; functions of the mind

Early North American psychologists, such as Baldwin and Calkins, placed heavy emphasis

on

a. laboratory experimentation and observation.

b. philosophical foundations of psychology.

c. psychology's relationship to the new social sciences.

d. improving human welfare.

e. a mixture of Wundtian and Freudian approaches.

a. laboratory experimentation and observation.

Thorndike formulated the law of effect while studying the behavior of

a. college students.

b. animals.

c. factory workers.

d. U.S. Navy personnel.

e. children.

b. animals.

The law of effect was formulated by

a. Pavlov.

b. Thorndike.

c. Watson.

d. Skinner.

e. Freud.

b. Thorndike.

Which of the following approaches to psychology rejected the idea that mental events are

an appropriate subject matter for psychology?

a. behaviorism

b. structuralism

c. Gestalt psychology

d. functionalism

e. cognitive psychology

a. behaviorism

The idea that behavior that produces a favorable outcome is likely to be repeated is

embodied in the

a. Baldwin effect.

b. Pavlov's concept of psychic reflexes.

c. doctrine of specific nerve energies.

d. law of effect.

e. structuralists' use of introspection.

d. law of effect.

Kathleen trains her dog by giving him a treat every time he obeys and scolding him when

he disobeys. Her method of training is most closely related to

a. functionalism.

b. Pavlov's psychic reflexes.

c. the doctrine of specific nerve energies.

d. the law of effect.

e. Gestalt principles of organization.

d. the law of effect.

Behaviorists after Thorndike rejected his mentalistic terminology, such as

a. "satisfaction."

b. "reinforcement."

c. "stimulus."

d. "conditioning."

e. "punishment."

a. "satisfaction."

Pavlov

a. collaborated with Thorndike in formulating the law of effect.

b. is credited with founding behaviorism.

c. was greatly influenced by Skinner's research on reinforcement.

d. was not a psychologist.

e. was a student of Wundt's.

d. was not a psychologist.

One of Watson's most enduring contributions to psychology was his

a. application of technology to human behavioral problems.

b. emphasis on objectivity in psychological research.

c. invention of new laboratory techniques for measuring behavior.

d. insistence that mental events are appropriate subjects for psychologists to study.

e. discovery of the law of effect.

b. emphasis on objectivity in psychological research.

According to Margaret Floy Washburn,

a. introspection could be considered a form of behavior.

b. mental events will be forever inaccessible.

c. with proper methods, all mental events can be shown to be brain events.

d. behaviorism is more applicable to children than to adults.

e. behaviorism is actually a form of structuralism.

a. introspection could be considered a form of behavior.

Which approach to psychology stresses positive growth and self-realization?

a. Humanistic psychology

b. Behaviorism

c. Gestalt psychology

d. Psychodynamic psychology

e. Structuralism

a. Humanistic psychology

Humanistic psychology

a. arose as a reaction against behaviorism and psychodynamic psychology.

b. recognizes that scientific research is invaluable for understanding human consciousness.

c. views people as the products of their environments and unconscious drives.

d. is preoccupied with individuals who are mentally ill.

e. is a research specialty rather than an applied specialty.

a. arose as a reaction against behaviorism and psychodynamic psychology.

Rosemary, a first-year graduate student in psychology, believes that human beings are

capable of positive growth and can make their own choices. She is most likely to be

attracted to the __________ approach to psychology.

a. behaviorist

b. Gestalt

c. cognitive

d. psychodynamic

e. humanistic

e. humanistic

Of the following, what is the best English translation of the German word "Gestalt"?

a. Unconscious perception

b. Complete perception

c. Unified form

d. Shapeless form

e. Incomplete form

c. Unified form

Which school of psychology emphasized the organization of cognitive processes rather

than their elements?

a. Humanistic psychology

b. Gestalt psychology

c. Cognitive psychology

d. Structuralism

e. Functionalism

b. Gestalt psychology

What do the methods used by cognitive psychologists have in common with those used by

behaviorists?

a. They are objective.

b. They are introspective.

c. They focus on understanding brain structure.

d. They emerged from research using animals.

e. They emphasize unconscious processes.

a. They are objective.

Dr. Das Gupta considers herself part of the "cognitive revolution." Like structuralists, her

research focuses on __________ but like behaviorists she uses __________.

a. subjective methods; information processing models

b. elements of consciousness; objective methods

c. introspection; the law of effect

d. scientific methods; Gestalt principles

e. mental structures; physiological methods

b. elements of consciousness; objective methods

The computer provides the primary model of the human brain for most __________

psychologists

a. Gestalt

b. humanistic

c. behaviorist

d. cognitive

e. psychodynamic

d. cognitive

How do cognitive psychologists analyze mental events?

a. As structures

b. As brain activities

c. As conscious behavior

d. As information processing

e. As unconscious events

d. As information processing

In your geography class, you memorize the locations of mountain ranges of the United

States. If you are focused on the West coast, it will take you longer to think of the location

of the Appalachians in the East than it will for you to think of the location of the Sierra-

Nevadas in the West. This result strongly suggests that mental images are

a. fragmented.

b. scanned by the subject.

c. fluid.

d. largley unconscious.

e. dynamic.

b. scanned by the subject.

The biological revolution in psychology was largely due to

a. the cognitive revolution.

b. advances in neurobiology.

c. the rediscovery of Gestalt psychology.

d. the reestablishment of Freudian theory.

e. advances in behaviorism.

b. advances in neurobiology.

Donald Hebb believed that both behavior and mental phenomena could be related

directly to

a. environmental influences.

b. information processing.

c. self-realization.

d. cognitive organization.

e. brain activity.

e. brain activity.