Births

What is the birth rate?

Number of live births per thousand of the population per year

What is the total fertility rate?

Average number of children women will have during their fertile years

How has women’s improved position affected the birth rate?

Legal equality, education, paid work, anti‑discrimination laws, changing attitudes, easier divorce, abortion access, reliable contraception

According to Harper, why does women’s education reduce the birth rate?

Educated women use family planning and know about alternative life options such as careers

What is the infant mortality rate?

Number of infants who die before their first birthday

According to Harper, how does falling IMR affect the birth rate?

High IMR increases birth rate because parents have more children to replace those lost

Why has the infant mortality rate fallen?

Better housing, sanitation, hygiene knowledge, maternal services, vaccinations, antibiotics, improved midwifery

What did Brass and Kabir say about family size trends?

Smaller families began in urban areas where IMR first fell

Why have children become economic liabilities?

Child labour bans, compulsory schooling, raised school leaving age, rising costs of childrearing

How does child‑centredness affect the birth rate?

Parents prioritise quality over quantity, investing more time and resources in fewer children

How has immigration affected the birth rate?

Mothers born outside the UK have higher fertility rates, raising the overall birth rate

How has falling fertility affected families?

Smaller families make it easier for women to work, increasing dual‑earner households

What is the dependency ratio?

Ratio of economically dependent people to those who are economically independent

How does high fertility affect the dependency ratio?

Increases dependency because more children rely on the working population

How does low fertility affect the dependency ratio?

Reduces the number of future workers, increasing the long‑term dependency burden

What population trend is caused by a lower birth rate?

An ageing population