Hist 2A03 - Middle Eastern Societies - Key Figures

Murad I

Son of Orhan I. Claims the title Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.

Consolidated Ottoman power in the Balkans, set up a capital at Edirne, and gradually reduced the Byzantine emperor to a vassal. Created the Janissary military unit. Died in 1389.

Naser al-Din Shah

Qajar Shah of Iran, ruling from 1848-1856.

Issued monopolies to various empires to drive economic growth within Iran. These monopolies caused civil unrest as local/rural merchants and farmers could no longer be competitive in the market. Eventually had to cancel them and take European loans instead.

Abu Bakr

First Caliph after the Death of Muhammad. Rules from 632-634.

Bayezid I

Son of Murad I. Founded the first centralized Ottoman state based on traditional Turkish and Muslim institutions, and stressed the need to extend Ottoman dominion in Anatolia. Died in Mongol Captivity in 1402.

Mehmed II

Son of Murad II. Ottoman sultan called the "Conqueror," was responsible for the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, which became Istanbul; he destroyed what remained of the Byzantine Empire by invading Belgrade.

Had two reigns due to Janissary Insurgencies. Died in 1481.

Bayezid II

Ottoman Sultan who ruled from 1481-1512.

Selim I

Son of Bayezid II. Ottoman Sultan, ruling from 1512-1520, who moved the empire eastward, conquering Syria (1516) and Egypt (1517). Became the first Ottoman Sunni Caliph, Protector of the 2 Islamic Holy Cities. Died in

Suleiman I

Son of Selim I. Ottoman Sultan who ruled from 1520-1566. Ruled during the Renaissance/high point of the Empire, capturing Rhodes (1522), Vienna (1529), Baghdad (1534), and Malta (1565).

Shah Isma'il

Founder of the Safavid Empire in 1501, ruled until 1524 (death); made Twelver Shiism the official religion of the empire, claiming to be related to the 7th Shi'a Imam Jafar, and imposed it upon his Sunni subjects; his followers became known as Qizilbash (Red Hats). Threatened the Ottomans to the East by conquering Tabriz (1501), Baghdad (1505), and Chaldiran (1514).

Shah Abbas I

Shah of Iran in the Safavid Dynasty from 1588 to 1629. Moved the Capital to Isfahan and began forcibly converting others to Shi'a Islam.

Zahir al-'Umar

Regional leader during the era of regionalism in 19thC Ottoman Empire. Took control of the Port of Acre (Akka) and monopolized cotton production and trade throughout modern-day Lebanon and Palestine. Revolted against Constantinople when the central Ottoman government refused to make him Governor.

Selim II

Ottoman Sultan tasked with reform throughout his rule from 1789-1807.

- Restructured the military with European Advisors and was heavily influenced by European Ambassadors.

- Established the Nizam-I Cedid (New Order Army), a second, distinct army from the larger Janissaries.

Overthrown by said Janissaries who disagreed with his reform efforts.

Mahmoud II

Ottoman sultan who replaced Mustafa IV, and ruled from 1808-1839. Abolished Jannisaries after a revolt ("Auspicious Events") in 1826. Increases reform throughout the Empire, bringing Newspapers, Western Clothing and Uniforms, and Reserve Unit Conscription.

Abdulmejid I

Ottoman Sultan ruling from 1839-1861, who continued his father (Mahmud II's) reform projects. S

Enacted the Tanzimat Reforms, with the support of Mustafa Pasha, Ali Pasha, and Fuad Pasha, creating a civil society; declared the Hatt-i Sharif (Edict) of Gulane, a mission statement promising equality and progressive change, placing all religions and cultural groups under the same laws and rights. Grew a complete bureaucracy with Ministers and state-sponsored education.

Implemented the Land Code (1858), which mimicked the French civil code within Islamic law. Legal systems became secular (ruled by Lawyers/Judgers rather than Religious Leaders. Sultan owned land and offered centralized taxation systems.

Abdulaziz

Ottoman sultan ruling from 1861-1876. Tried to enact conservative reformation, which would have returned power to the sultan and removed the Pashas, resulting in his deposition in 1876.

Abdul Hamid II

Ottoman Sultan ruling from 1876-1909.

First Sultan under the new Ottoman Constitution, with an elected assembly. Circumvents the assembly by dismissing it from 1878 to his deposition in 1909.

Created the Ottoman Public Debt Administration in 1881 to address increased inflation and debt throughout the 1870s.

Sa'id of Egypt

Successor to Muhammad Ali in Egypt. Rules from 1854-1863.

Influenced by the halt of American Cotton production (Civil War), he began to build the Suez Canal in 1859. Egypt provides half the funds and lots of enslaved labour.

Tawfiq

Replaced Isma'il, ruled from 1879-(82)-1889. Weak on Europe and lacked local support. Egypt becomes a veiled protectorate under his rule, and the British largely control Egypt from 1882 onward.

Qajars

Members of the dynasty that ruled present-day Iran from the late 1700s until 1925

Agha Muhammad Kahn Shah

First Qajar Shah of Iran. Ruled from 1789-1797. Reunified the country under the Qajar Dynasty and moved the capital to Tehran, winning the Iranian Power Struggle.

Fath Ali Shah

Successor to Agha Muhammad Khan. Second Qajar Shah of Iran. Ruled from 1797-1834.

Muhammad Shah

Successor to Fath Ali Shah. Third Qajar Shah of Iran. Ruled from 1834-1848.

Lord Cromer (Evelyn Baring)

British administrator who ruled Egypt, emphasizing fiscal control and colonial efficiency. Acted as high commissioner from 1883-1907.

Muhammad Ahmed

Led the Sudanese Revolt in 1881, proclaimed to be the Mahdi (a descendant of the prophet Muhammad who will come to restore order before the second coming of Jesus). Led revolts against Anglo-Egyptian interference in Sudan.

Herbert Kitchener

Secured control of Sudan by winning the Battle of Omdurman in 1898. Further went on to support the Second Boer War.

Mehmed V

Ottoman Sultan from 1909-1919. The figurehead ruler was installed following the Young Turk Revolution during the Military Rulership post-revolution.

Alexander the Great

Invades the Persian Empire and conquers it around 301 BCE. Turns it into the Hellenistic Kingdoms.

The Prophet Muhammad

Founder of Islam. Believed to be the latest and last Judeo-Christian prophet.

Spreads "monotheism" (the idea of one true God) during the Islamic Conquests in the 7th and 9th Centuries. Flees to Medina in 622 CE, and starts the Hijra (Islamic Calendar). Conquers Mecca in 630 CE, dies in 632 CE.

Umar

Second Caliph. Rules from 634-644.

Uthman

Third Caliph. Rules from 644-656.

Ali

The fourth caliph of Islam, who is considered to be the first caliph by Shi'a Muslims.

Dissenting groups disagree with the legitimacy of caliphs post Ali. Leads to the development of Sunni (orthodox) Islam and Shi'a Islam.

Osman I

Founder of the Ottoman Empire. Established Anatolia (Asia Minor), ruled it as a Turkic principality until he died in 1325.

Orhan

Son of Osman I. Led the Ottoman Empire's expansion after its creation by Osman I. Developed the Empire north into Europe. Died in 1362.

Mustafa IV

Ottoman Sultan who replaced Selim II after being overthrown by Janissaries. Ruled from 1807-1808.

Muhammad (Mehmed) Ali

Pasha - Governor of Egypt from 1805-1848 - who drastically reformed the military, Economy, and Industry.

Established Military Academies after invading and subjugating Sudan in 1820. Capitalized on Sudanese Slaves, and used conscription when enslaved Sudanese people became unreliable sources of manpower.

Monopolized control over Egyptian Agriculture, selling Rice, Wheat, and Cotton to European Markets, collecting large profits as an intermediary.

Struggled to diversify their economy into industrial opportunities; sees Egyptian growth stall in the 1840s.

Ibrahim Pasha

Son of Muhammad Ali, a great military leader and eventually Pasha.

Invades Syria and Anatolia during the Egyptian Revolt. Rejects the central Ottoman priorities. Captures Syria in 1831, leads the Egyptian army towards Constantinople, before British and French forces intervene to prevent civil war. Becomes Governor of Syria. Is forced to withdraw from Syria after the Treaty of London (1840).

Led Syria as Pasha from 1831-1840. Invoked similar reformation as his father, Muhammad Ali, ending the equal treatment between tribes in favour of Shi'a Islam.

Isma'il of Egypt

Successor to Sa'id. Rules from 1863-1879.

Finishes the construction of the Suez Canal in 1869. Sells half the ownership claims to the British. During his rule, Europeans began to try to control Egyptian Funds due to the ongoing debt crisis. Dismissed by the Sultanate for attempting to dismiss European Debt Controllers, which resulted in political fights as Europeans directed funds to pay European creditors, which wasn't happening.

Mozaffar ad-Din Shah

Qajar Shah of Iran, ruling from 1896-1907.

Implemented the Persian Constitutional Revolution (1906), caused by large discontent with the Qajar dynasty following disadvantaged markets and heavy loan usage. Implemented the first parliament of Majles in 1906 and distributed some of the power to the legislature. Died in 1907.

Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar

Qajar Shah of Iran, ruling from 1907-1909.

Attempted to continue the work of his father, Mazaffar ad-Din Shah, but experienced a Royal Coup in 1908-09. Upon becoming Shah, he reversed the Constitution of 1906 and promptly dismissed the Majles. Was deposed in 1909 and replaced by his son.

Ahmad Shah Qajar

Qajar Shah of Iran, ruling from 1909-1925. Appointed Shah after the deposition of his father in 1909.

The second Majles, which was paralyzed by faction gridlock, was dismissed in 1909. Enacted many reforms to modernize suffrage and give a voice to minorities. Witnessed WW1 but remained neutral during the war. British and Russian forces fought the Ottomans within Iran and control most of Iran throughout the war.

Sharif Hussain ibn Ali

Emir of Mecca and Leader of the Arab Revolt (1916). With the goal of an autonomous Arabic state, temporarily under British/French control.

Becomes King of the Hejaz from 1916-1924. Is pushed out at the end of his reign by vocally opposing the mandate system and refusing to sign an Anglo-Hashemite Treaty.

Lawrence of Arabia

British military officer who incited the Arabs in Arabia to revolt against their Ottoman rulers.

With the help of Faisal I, he captured Aqaba (1917) and Damascus & Aleppo (1918). Created a provisional government in the Arabic Kingdom of Syria with Faisal as Monarch.

Mustafa Kemal

Leader tasked with returning order to the Ottoman Empire after WW1 in 1919. Championed Turkish Independence by establishing a rival government in Ankara in 1920, establishing a new constitution in 1921, and beginning a civil war between Turks and other Ottoman Nations (Armenians, Kurds, and European Influencers).

Signed the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), which established an independent Turkish state in Anatolia. Became the first President in the Republic of Turkey, enforcing major reformations and modernization- including secular state institutions, populist rule, gender equality, and a state market.

Reza Shah

First Pahlavi Shah of Iran; leader of the Cossack Brigade, who led a coup against the Iranian Government in 1925. Gained support for his authoritarian rule by creating a large national army and supporting large merchants.

Improved governance and created a stronger, central, western-style government. Pushed reform through the secularization of schools, western-style clothing in the government, and relied on force to ensure these reforms were followed through.

Faisal I

Son of Hussain ibn Ali; Key figure in the Arab Revolt. After capturing various cities during the revolt, he was appointed King of Syria in 1920 for a few months before being forced into exile by the French Mandate.

Becomes King of Iraq under the British Mandate, ruling from 1921-1933; Iraq becomes a combined nation of Shi'a Basra, Sunni Baghdad, and the Kurds in 1926. Faisal created a coalition government with mixed representation of Sunni Landowners and Sharia Followers (limited Maronite representation- French backed). Mandate moves out slowly between 1922 and 1930, following two treaties.

Abdullah I

First King of Jordan, ruling from 1921-[1946]-1951.

Faisal I's brother, who moved north of the Hejaz after the Arab Revolt to settle in Amman under British Mandate. Ruled as the Emirate of Transjordan until 1946 when he was declared King.

Ali bin Hussein

(Actual) First King of Hejaz. Overthrown by Saudi forces who amalgamate the Hejaz into Saudi Arabia.

Ibn Saud

King of the Hejaz, ruling from 1926-1932, when he became King of Saudi Arabia from 1932-1953.

He established an independent state with British financial support in Saudi Arabia, and led an informal government, growing closer to the Wahhabis. Remained in power with the support of RAF/British Armed Forces before creating a centralized Saudi Army. Dies in 1953.

Waft Party

Political party which launched riots and strikes in Egypt in 1919 over resentment of British rule. Resulted in Egyptian Independence in 1922.

Fuad I

First King of Egypt, ruled from 1917-[1922]-1936.

Ruled as Sultan from 1917-1922, before being granted Egyptian Independence and becoming King in 1922, a consequence of the Egyptian Revolt in 1919. In this, the British kept control of the Suez Canal, Sudan, and the protection of Foreign Nationals, mostly a protectorate.

Established the Constitution of 1923, which gave the Monarch sweeping powers within the govt including a veto and 2-step voting to prevent opposition. Political gridlock and the King's authority prevented effective/representational governance. Led to calls for reformation by the Muslim Brotherhood.

Hassan al-Banna

Founder of the Muslim Brotherhood.

Free Officers

Bloodless Coup in 1953 led by Nasser which overthrew the Monarchy.

Gamal Abdel Nasser

Second Egyptian President who led the Free Officers to overthrow the Egyptian Monarchy. Ruled from 1956-1970.

Ruled with a populist focus, standing up to Europe, removed Anglo forces from the Suez and distributed welfare to more people. Banned the Muslim Brotherhood after assassination attempts in 1954.

Neutral towards Capitalist/Communist influence/debate during the cold war. Pushed for neutrality but played both sides against each other. Culminates in the Suez Canal Crisis (1956), where Brit/US funding halts for the Aswan High Dam (due to Nasser's flirting with the commies), which leads him to cut suez access to the Brits/Fr/IDF. IDF leads strikes against Egypt, Nasser rejects ceasefire, giving Brits/Fr casus belli to attack Egypt directly.

Leads to the UN declaring the Suez a Buffer Zone. Nasser then pushes them out in 1967, leading to the Six-Day War (1967).

Talal

Second King of Jordan. Ruled from 1951-1952.

Hussein

Third King of Jordan. Ruled from 1952-1999.

Abdel Hakim Amer

Controlled United Arabic Emerites or Egyptian Armies? Purged it of Communists/Soviet influence.

Salah Jadid

Leader of the Ba'th Party who led the 1966 Syrian Coup. Ruled Syria in secret from 1966-1970.

Created a totalitarian, "neo-marxist," rule which alienated syrian and international communities. Heavily disliked.

Hafez Al-Assad

President of Syria from 1971-2000. Took control of Syria after the Coup of 1970.

He was an Alawite and came from a poor family. He was a member of the Ba'th party and a pan-Arabist.

Before becoming president, he commanded the Syrian air force. He opposed the Muslim Brotherhood and Islamism more generally. He improved and expanded education and infrastructure in Syria. He suppressed political opposition and expanded Syria's secret police.

Faisal II

King of Iraq from 1939-[1953]-1958. Most of his rule was covered by a regent, as he came of age in 1953.

Iraq experienced little change during his reign. Had a pro-western government and ignored populist/reformation policy.

Abd al-Karim Qasim

Prime Minister of Iraq who led the 14 July Revolution in 1958 in Iraq. Ruled from 1958-1963.

Utilized the Free Officers within the Iraqi Military to use a coup. Murdered Faisal II and abolished the Monarchy, opting for a Prime Minister (whom he appointed himself).

Alienated fellow Ba'ath members and Communists, attempting to keep opposition low. Implemented Agrarian Reform Law, creating Land Ownership Limits, Rent Control and Lowering Food Prices. Saw Kuwait gain Independence.

Abdul Salam Arif

President from 1963-1966 following a coup by the Ba'th Party and Nasser. Concentrates the government and state powers to grow the national power and identity. Dies in 1966.

Abdul Rahman Arif

Replaced Abdul Salam Arif as President in 1966, ruling until a deposition in 1968. Brother to Arif.

Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr

President (and Prime Minister) of Iraq from 1968-1979. Part of the Ba'thist Revolution/Coup in 1968.

Saddam Hussein

President of Iraq from 1979 to 2003. Waged war on Iran in 1980-1988. In 1990 he ordered an invasion of Kuwait but was defeated by United States and its allies in the Gulf War (1991). Defeated by US led invasion in 2003.

Camille Chamoun

President of Lebanon who caused the Lebanon Crisis of 1958 by attempting to run for a second term against the constitution.

Resulted in American Stabilization of the of the Country.

Fu'ad Shihab

President of Lebanon following the Lebanon Crisis of 1958.

Focused on strengthening the state and breaking up the religious sects. Experiences militaries being neutral to internal protests, with religious sects creating paramilitary forces.

Mohammed Reza Shah

Second Pahlavi Shah of Iran ruling from 1941-1979.

Instituted a Constitutional Monarchy, enabling parliament to have more money and funds.

Mohammad Mossadegh

Reform prime minister of Iran who wanted to nationalize the oil industry. Slowly pushed our royalists, while Shah tries to push PM out, resulting in the Iranian Coup of 1953, which is undone by the CIA/Brit Intel who reinstate the Shah.

Anwar Sadat

President of Egypt (1970-1981) who negotiated the Camp David Accords (1978) becoming closer to America and Israel.

The accords resulted in a signed treaty granting them both concessions. Also re-allowed political parties, leading the Muslim Brotherhood to grow again in the 1980s.

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini

Shi'a religious leader who was an outspoken critic of Mohammad Reza Shah. Became the first Supreme Leader of Iran from 1979-1989.

Government rallied behind Khomeini, who wanted to enforce Shi'a law throughout the country. Leads to civil unrest and revolution from 1977-1978, with various strikes, protests, and fires.

Eventually is instated as Supreme Leader, accountable to God, and drafts a new Constitution through referenda. Most opposition boycotts, resulting in a 99% approval rate.

Ali Khomeini

Supreme leader of Iran following Ayatollah Khomeini. More authority slips to Military/Guardians.

Assassinated by US/IDF forces in the 2026 Iran War.

Mohammad Khatami

President if Iran from 1997-2005. Reformist who aimed to end freeze in relations between Iran and the West. Believed in a "dialogue among civilizations" that fostered positive relationships with other countries. Reforms were mostly ignored by the Guardian council.

Mahmoud Ahmadinejad

President of Iran from 2005-2013. Campaigned on strong islamic law.

Khalid of Saudi Arabia

Son of Ibn Saud. Reigned as King/PM of Saudi Arabia from 1975-1982.

Fahd of Saudi Arabia

Son of Ibn Saud. Reigned as King/PM of Saudi Arabia from 1982-2005.

Abdullah II

Fourth King of Jordan. Ruled from 1999-Present.

Mohamed Morsi

President of Egypt, ruling from 2012-2013. Leading figure in the Muslim Brotherhood. Overthrown following a Military Coup and Civil Unrest in 2013.

Abdel Fattah el-Sisi

President of Egypt, ruling from 2014-Present. Member of the Muslim Brotherhood.

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