intro to social science

natural science

focuses on the natural and physical world

social science

focuses on people and society

social groups

collection of individuals who interact both formally and informally to each other

institutions

an established, organized system of behavior, roles, and norms that satisfies fundamental societal needs and provides stability

ethnography

the in-depth, qualitative study of people and cultures in their natural environments, primarily using participant-observation

microsociology

study of human behavior in face to face interaction

macrosociology

study of large groups and broad social systems

sociological imagination

the ability to see the connection between individual experiences and larger social forces

social structures

the stable, patterned arrangements of relationships and institutions that make up society

social construction

an idea or practice that a group of people agree is real or exists

social order

the stable state of society in which the existing social structure is accepted and maintained by its members

socialization

the process where children develop an awareness of social norms and values and achieve a distinct sense of self

functionalism

emile durkheim. idea that society is seen as a complex system whose parts work together to promote stability and social order

social function

the contribution a part of society makes to the stability and maintenance of the whole social system

manifest function

intended or obvious consequences of a particular structure

latent functions

unintended or unrecognized consequences of a particular structure

social dysfunction

any social pattern that disrupts the smooth operation of society

conflict theory

imagines society as being composed of different groups that struggle over scarce resources like power, money, land, food, status

class conflict

karl marx. the inherent struggle between opposing social classes driven by competing economic interests and exploitation under capitalism

race conflict theory

social inequality is a result of conflict between different racial and ethnic groups

gender conflict theory

social inequalities between men and women

symbolic interactionism

focuses on how individuals create and interpret their social world through face-to-face interactions, language, and shared symbols

postmodernism

a perspective that rejects grand narratives and objective truths, arguing that contemporary society is fragmented, media-saturated, and defined by diversity, consumerism, and rapid change

social control

refers to the mechanisms, strategies, and norms a society uses to regulate individual behavior

assimilation

process by which different cultures are absorbed into the mainstream culture

multiculturalism

a condition in which ethnic groups exist separately and share equally in economic and political life

ethnocentrism

belief that one’s own culture is superior to others

cultural relativism

the practice of judging a society by its own standards In order to understand that culture better

nature

traits are determined by genetics

nurture

traits are determined by environmental factores and experiences

life course

various transitions and stages people experience during their lives

primary socialization

individuals internalize fundamental norms, values, and behaviors from family

secondary socialization

the process of learning appropriate behavior, norms, and skills for specific, smaller group roles outside the home

social reproduction

process of perpetuating values, norms, and social practices through socialization

resocialization

process wherein people learn new rules and norms upon entering a new social world

self identity

people’s understandings about who they are and what is meaningful to them

social identity

The characteristics that are attributed to an individual by others

looking glass self theory

a person’s self-concept grows out of social interactions and the perceptions of others

Pygmalion effect

high expectations from a leader, teacher, or authority figure lead to improved performance in others

Social position

the social identity an individual has in a given group or society

Status

The social honor or prestige that a particular group is accorded by other members of a society

social roles

socially defined expectations

role theory

human behavior is guided by expectations associated with specific, socially defined positions

audience segregation

the practice of managing social contexts to present different facets of identity to different groups

Impression management

how individuals consciously or subconsciously control how they are perceived by others

Ethnomethodology

how people maintain social order through everyday interactions

Interactional Vandalism

when someone knowingly breaks the expected social behavior

civil inattention

describe the way we acknowledge strangers in our environment

Network Science

Explores how the parts of a complex system are connected and seeks to understand the structure and behavior of the system as a whole

network

set of informal and formal social ties linking people

Social group

a collection of people who interact regularly, share expectations about behavior and feel a common identity

Social aggregate

a collection of people who are in the same place at the same time, but do not significantly interact much nor share an identity

Social category

people who share a common characteristic but do not necessarily interact or identify with one another

Primary groups

Small groups with strong/intense emotional ties

secondary groups

Usually larger and more impersonal and exist to perform some function

community/cluster

set of nodes that are more densely connected to each other than to the rest of the network

High clustering

high chance my contacts are also connected to each other

bridge

node that connects different clusters

reference groups

group that provides a standard for judging your attitudes or behavior

groupthink

dysfunctional decision-making process where a group prioritizes harmony over critical analysis

Conformity

the act of matching attitudes and behaviors to group norms to fit in

dyad

group of two

triad

group of three

coalition

dyad within the triad

The Ringelmann effect

As group size increases, average effort per person often falls

Bystander effect

the more people there are present, the less likely any one person is to help in an emergency

Norms

Rules of conduct that specify appropriate behavior in a given range of social situations

Deviance

Modes of action that do not conform to the norms or values held by most members of a group or society

Admired behavior

Not all deviance is negative like innovation, social justice, feminist activism

Odd behavior

When an act can be deviant but not criminal

Bad behavior

An act can be criminal and deviant

Street crime

Criminal activities in public places, with physical violence or property harm

Organized crime

Criminal enterprises, highly structured and coordinated, operating systematically illegal activities

White Collar Crime

Non-violent offenses committed by individuals or organizations in professional or business settings, for financial gain

Online Crime (Cybercrime)

criminal activities conducted through digital technologies and the internet

Anomie

a sense of alienation from society, can lead to hopelessness and deviant behavior

strain theory

proposes that crime and deviance occur when society pressures individuals to achieve goals without providing equal legitimate means to do so

Differential Association theory

criminal behavior is learned through association with others who regularly engage in crime

Labeling Theory

People become deviant because certain labels are attached to their behavior by political authorities and others

Primary deviation

the actions that cause others to label one as deviant

Secondary deviation

occurs when an individual accepts the label of deviant and acts accordingly

Conflict Theory (in deviance)

Individuals choose to engage in deviant behavior in response to the inequalities of the capitalist system