Psychology Comprehensive Review Flashcards

A collection of 570 flashcards (with representative samples from all units provided in the transcript) covering foundational psychology concepts, biological bases of behavior, cognitive processes, developmental stages, learning theories, social psychology, personality, and clinical psychology.

Hindsight bias

The human tendency to believe "I knew it all along" after an event has occurred.

Overconfidence bias

The tendency to believe we are more capable than we actually are.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to gather evidence that confirms preexisting expectations.

Perceiving order in random events

The tendency for people to search for patterns even when there are none.

Theory

An explanation using a set of principles that organizes and predicts observations.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational definition

Descriptions of exactly how measurements will be taken, often phrased as "measured by" or "defined as."

Replication

Repeating a study procedure; এটি adds to evidence but cannot be done without clear operational definitions.

Peer review

A process by which experts in the field review each other's work before publication in academic journals to ensure no bias.

Experimental method

The gold standard of research as it is the only method that can allow for cause and effect conclusions.

Independent variable

The thing being manipulated by the researcher; must be randomly assigned and cannot be self-selected.

Dependent variable

The thing being measured in an experiment.

Control group

The group that does not get the intervention being studied; often represents the "regular way."

Critiquing experiments

The belief that the subjects in the research are just as important as the procedures followed.

Generalization

Drawing conclusions about a whole group (population) based on results from a small group.

Random sample

A sample where everyone in the population has an equal chance of inclusion.

Representative sample

A sample whose characteristics (gender, region, age, skill, etc.) match the population.

Sampling bias

A sampling method that produces an unrepresentative sample, leading to potentially misleading results.

Placebo

An inactive substance given to some participants in the control group.

Single-blind

A procedure that controls for participant bias where only participants do not know if they are receiving the real treatment.

Double-blind

A procedure that controls for experimenter and participant bias; neither know who received the real treatment or placebo.

Non-experimental methods

Research methods that do not establish cause and effect.

Case study

An in-depth investigation of an individual or small group.

Naturalistic observation

Recording data of the natural behaviors of many individuals.

Correlation

A technique used to identify relationships between $2$ variables.

Surveys

A technique for ascertaining self-reported attitudes.

Self-report bias

A phenomenon where people might lie or misremember events during surveys.

Social desirability bias

A bias where people want to please the researcher by providing specific answers.

Ethics: Informed consent

Telling participants enough to choose whether they wish to participate.

Ethics: Protection from harm

Ensuring participants are not physically or mentally harmed during research.

Ethics: Confidentiality

Keeping participant information private.

Ethics: Deception

Misleading participants about the true purpose of a study (must be debriefed).

Ethics: Debriefing

Explaining the study to participants after it is completed.

Qualitative data

Narrative data, such as results from a structured interview.

Quantitative data

Numerical data, such as results from a Likert scale used in a survey.

Mean

The average of a data set.

Median

The number in the middle of a sorted data set.

Mode

The most commonly occurring number in a data set.

Standard deviation

A measure that helps determine if a mean is misleading.

Statistical significance

A result likely caused by the effect the Independent Variable had on the Dependent Variable.

Effect size

A measure of how big the effect of a study was.

Small effect size

$$0.2$$

Medium effect size

$$0.3 - 0.7$$

Large effect size

$$0.8 - 1.0$$

Afferent neurons

Sensory neurons that take information to the brain.

Efferent neurons

Motor neurons that take information as it exits the brain.

Interneurons

Neurons that take information between other neurons.

Spinal cord Neuron Junction

The location where all $3$ types of neurons (afferent, efferent, interneurons) meet.

Spinal cord function

Has $1$ job: reflexes, moving away or doing something to prevent us from hurting ourselves.

Sensory neurons signal path

Signals from the senses to the brain (e.g., stubbing a toe).

Motor neurons signal path

Signals from the brain to the muscles, glands, and organs.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that neurons use to communicate.

Exon terminal button

Connects with a dendrite and releases neurotransmitters; also where reuptake happens.

Reuptake

The process where the sending neuron reabsorbs excess neurotransmitters.

Excitatory messages

Messages that encourage the cell to send its own message by generating an action potential.

Inhibitory messages

Messages that discourage the cell from generating an action potential.

Agonists

Drugs that increase the effect of a specific neurotransmitter.

Antagonists

Drugs that decrease the effect of a specific neurotransmitter.

Dopamine

Associated with movement, motivation (learning, pleasure/reward), schizophrenia, Parkinson's, and addiction.

Serotonin

Associated with mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; deficiency linked to depression and anxiety.

Norepinephrine

Also known as noradrenaline; associated with alertness and arousal.

Epinephrine

Also known as adrenaline; stimulates the fight or flight response.

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory; too much causes overstimulation and seizures.

GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter; too little linked to tremors, insomnia, and alcohol usage.

Endorphins

Natural painkillers; responsible for "runners high" and mimicked by opioid drugs.

Substance P

Associated with the transmission of pain signals and immune response; oversupply increases pain perception.

Acetylcholine

Associated with muscles, learning, and memory; linked to Myasthenia Gravis and Alzheimer's.

Myasthenia Gravis

Condition affecting voluntary muscles (eyes, face, chewing, swallowing, talking) linked to Acetylcholine.

Refractory period

A short time when the cell cannot be active because sodium entered and potassium left; they must switch back.

Intra-neuron signals

Electrical signals known as the Action Potential that travel within a neuron.

Inter-neuron signals

Chemical signals known as neurotransmitters that travel between neurons.

Central Nervous System (CNS) components

Consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) components

Consists of the autonomic system and the somatic system.

CNS role

Functioning as the body's decision maker.

Brain neuron count

Approximately $128$ billion neurons working in groups called networks.

Spinal cord role

A two-way info highway connecting the peripheral system and the brain.

PNS role

Gathering information and transmitting CNS decisions to other body parts.

Autonomic system

Controls glands and internal organ muscles; influences heartbeat and digestion.

Somatic system

Enables voluntary control of skeletal muscles (e.g., reporting a friend's tap on the shoulder).

Parasympathetic system

Conserves energy and calms the body; produces the opposite effect of the sympathetic system.

Sympathetic system

Arouses and expends energy; accelerates heartbeat, raises blood pressure, and slows digestion.

Homeostasis

The steady internal state maintained by the parasympathetic and sympathetic systems working together.

Pupils (Parasympathetic)

Contract.

Pupils (Sympathetic)

Dilate.

Heart (Parasympathetic)

Heartbeat normal or slows down.

Heart (Sympathetic)

Accelerates heartbeat.

Digestion (Parasympathetic)

Stimulate digestion.

Digestion (Sympathetic)

Inhibit digestion.

Bowel/Bladder (Parasympathetic)

Contracts or normal.

Bowel/Bladder (Sympathetic)

Relaxes.

Blood sugar (Parasympathetic)

Relaxes or steady.

Blood sugar (Sympathetic)

Stimulates glucose release.

Pituitary gland

Regulates and controls other endocrine glands under the influence of the hypothalamus.

Leptin

A hormone that creates feelings of fullness.

Ghrelin

A hormone that creates feelings of hunger.

Melatonin

A hormone that regulates sleep.

Oxytocin

A hormone that creates pleasurable feelings in social interactions.

Reticular activating system

Controls arousal (alertness) and sleep-wake transitions.

Reward center

Responsible for pleasurable feelings that encourage continued behaviors.

Left hemisphere: Frontal lobe

Involved in high order thinking, decision making, and forming judgment.