Comprehensive Guide to Social Psychology: Helping Behaviors and Norms

Social Exchange Theory

People help when the rewards outweigh the costs; focuses on maximizing benefits and minimizing costs

Altruism

Helping behavior motivated by a genuine desire to benefit another person with no expectation of reward

Reciprocity Norm

The expectation that people should help those who have helped them before

Social Responsibility Norm

The belief that people should help those who genuinely need help, especially if they are not responsible for their situation

Evolutionary Theory

The idea that helping behaviors evolved because they improve survival and reproductive success

Kin Selection

Helping relatives because they share our genes

Reciprocal Altruism

Helping someone with the expectation they may help you in the future

Bystander Effect

The tendency for people to be less likely to help when other people are present

Diffusion of Responsibility

The belief that someone else will take responsibility for helping in a group situation

Pluralistic Ignorance

When people look to others for cues and mistakenly conclude that a situation is not an emergency because no one else reacts

Darley and Latane's 5 Steps of Helping

1. Notice the event 2. Interpret it as an emergency 3. Accept responsibility 4. Know how to help 5. Implement the help

Failure at Step 1

People may not notice the emergency because they are distracted or in a hurry

Failure at Step 2

People may not interpret the situation as an emergency because of pluralistic ignorance

Failure at Step 3

People may not accept responsibility because of diffusion of responsibility

Failure at Step 4

People may not know what type of help to give

Failure at Step 5

People may decide not to help because of fear, danger, or embarrassment

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

The idea that empathy for a person can produce truly altruistic helping

Toi and Batson (1982)

Found that people with high empathy helped more even when they could easily avoid the situation

Batson's Egoistic Motivation

Helping in order to gain rewards or avoid punishment

Batson's Arousal Reduction Motivation

Helping in order to reduce one's own distress or discomfort

Batson's Altruistic Motivation

Helping in order to reduce another person's suffering

Victim Characteristics That Increase Helping

People are more likely to help victims who are innocent, likable, similar to them, attractive, or clearly in need

Situational Factors That Decrease Helping

Many bystanders, danger, ambiguity, time pressure, and high costs decrease helping

Costs of Helping

Danger, pain, embarrassment, financial loss, time, and inconvenience

Rewards for Helping

Fame, gratitude, reciprocity, improved self-image, and reduced guilt

Costs of Not Helping

Guilt, shame, criticism from others, and feeling responsible

Emotion-Based Appeals for Help

Emotional reactions can increase helping because people want to reduce guilt, sadness, or distress

Good Mood Effect

People in good moods are often more likely to help to maintain their positive feelings

Negative-State Relief Hypothesis

People may help in order to reduce their own negative emotions

Social Dilemma

A situation in which individual self-interest conflicts with the welfare of the group

Tragedy of the Commons

A social dilemma where shared resources are overused because individuals act selfishly

Examples of Tragedy of the Commons

Overfishing, pollution, climate change, and overuse of public water supplies

Public Goods

Resource or service available to everyone regardless of whether they contribute

Examples of Public Goods

Clean air, public parks, streetlights, and national defense

Free Rider Problem

When people benefit from a public good without contributing to it

Prisoner's Dilemma

A situation in which two people must decide whether to cooperate or betray one another

Cooperation in Prisoner's Dilemma

Both individuals work together for mutual benefit

Competition in Prisoner's Dilemma

One or both individuals betray the other for personal gain

Dilemma in Prisoner's Dilemma

People want the rewards of cooperation but fear the other person may betray them

Predictions from Social Exchange Theory

People help when benefits are greater than costs

Predictions from Social Norms Theory

People help because social rules and expectations encourage helping

Predictions from Evolutionary Theory

People help relatives and people who may help them later because it improves survival and reproductive success