World History ll Midterm

Renaissance

A cultural movement (14th–17th century) emphasizing art, literature, and science, marking a rebirth of classical learning.

Leonardo da Vinci

Renaissance artist, inventor, and scientist; painted the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper.

Mona Lisa

Famous painting by Leonardo da Vinci, renowned for its realism and enigmatic smile.

Fresco

A technique of painting on wet plaster, used in Renaissance masterpieces like Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel.

Vernacular

Writing in the local language instead of Latin, making literature more accessible.

Johannes Gutenberg

Inventor of the printing press, which revolutionized the spread of knowledge.

Perspective

Artistic technique creating depth and dimension in paintings, developed during the Renaissance.

Michelangelo

Renaissance artist known for sculpting David and painting the Sistine Chapel ceiling.

David

Michelangelo's iconic marble statue representing the biblical hero, symbolizing human perfection.

Hans Holbein

Northern Renaissance painter famous for realistic portraits, including Henry VIII.

Humanism

Renaissance intellectual movement emphasizing human potential and achievements.

Martin Luther

German monk who sparked the Reformation by posting the 95 Theses, challenging the Catholic Church.

John Calvin

Reformation leader who developed Calvinism, emphasizing predestination and strict moral codes.

Predestination

Calvinist belief that God has already determined who will achieve salvation.

Henry VIII

King of England who broke from the Catholic Church to establish the Church of England.

Annul

To declare a marriage invalid; Henry VIII sought this to end his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.

Council of Trent

Catholic meeting to reform the Church and combat Protestantism, part of the Catholic Reformation.

Ignatius Loyola

Founder of the Jesuits, a Catholic order focused on education and missionary work.

Jesuits

Members of the Society of Jesus, who spread Catholicism through education and missionary efforts.

Thirty Years' War

Religious conflict (1618–1648) between Catholics and Protestants in Europe, ending with the Peace of Westphalia.

Peace of Augsburg

Agreement allowing German princes to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism for their territories.

Church of England

Protestant church established by Henry VIII after breaking from the Catholic Church.

Anne Boleyn

Henry VIII’s second wife; her execution led to political and religious upheaval.

“Bloody” Mary

Mary I of England, known for her persecution of Protestants during her reign.

God, Gold, Glory

Motivations for European exploration: spreading Christianity, acquiring wealth, and achieving national prestige.

Caravel

A small, fast, and maneuverable ship used in exploration.

Lateen Sails

Triangular sails enabling ships to sail against the wind.

Astrolabe

Navigation tool for determining latitude using celestial objects.

Compass

Tool for navigation that indicates magnetic north.

Wind Patterns

Understanding of global winds like trade winds, aiding transoceanic travel.

Henry the Navigator

Portuguese prince who advanced navigation and exploration techniques.

Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer who reached the Americas in 1492, initiating European colonization.

Ferdinand Magellan

Explorer who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe.

Conquistadors

Spanish conquerors of the Americas, such as Cortés and Pizarro.

Aztecs

Mesoamerican empire conquered by Hernán Cortés in 1521.

Tenochtitlan

Aztec capital, known for its grandeur and canals.

Hernán Cortés

Spanish conquistador who overthrew the Aztec Empire.

Montezuma II

Last Aztec emperor, captured and killed during Spanish conquest.

Smallpox

European disease that devastated native populations.

Inca

South American empire conquered by Francisco Pizarro.

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish conquistador who overthrew the Inca Empire.

Atahualpa

Last Inca ruler, executed by Pizarro.

La Malinche (Doña Marina)

Indigenous woman who acted as an interpreter and ally for Cortés.

Silver (Potosí)

Rich silver mines in Bolivia that fueled global trade.

Treaty of Tordesillas

Agreement dividing the New World between Spain and Portugal.

Joint Stock Company

Business model for funding exploration and colonization, reducing individual risk.

Mercantilism

Economic theory prioritizing wealth accumulation through trade surpluses.

Subsidies

Financial support from governments to encourage industries.

Tariffs

Taxes on imports to protect domestic markets.

Columbian Exchange

Global exchange of goods, crops, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds.

Cash Crops

Profitable crops like sugar, grown on plantations.

Sugar

High-demand cash crop cultivated in the Americas.

Plantations

Large farms in colonies reliant on enslaved labor.

Horses

Animals introduced to the Americas, transforming Indigenous societies.

Potatoes

New World crop that became a European staple.

Corn

American crop that spread worldwide, increasing food security.

Llamas

Domesticated animals of the Andes used for transport and wool.

Triangle Trade

Trade route connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas, trading goods, enslaved people, and resources.

Middle Passage

Deadly voyage transporting enslaved Africans to the Americas.

Benin

African kingdom involved in the Atlantic slave trade.

Queen Nzinga of Ndongo

African leader who resisted Portuguese colonization and the slave trade.

Maroon Societies

Communities of escaped enslaved people in the Americas.

Peninsulares

Spanish-born elites in colonial Latin America.

Creoles

Colonists of European descent born in the Americas.

Mestizos

Mixed-race individuals of European and Indigenous ancestry.

Mulattoes

Mixed-race individuals of European and African ancestry.

Encomienda System

Spanish labor system exploiting Indigenous people.

Mita

Inca labor system adapted by Spanish colonists for mining.

Bartolomé de Las Casas

Spanish priest who advocated for Indigenous rights.

Viceroys

Spanish royal governors in colonies.

Día de Los Muertos

Mexican holiday blending Indigenous and Catholic traditions.

Virgen de Guadalupe

Religious symbol uniting Indigenous and Catholic identities in Mexico.

Missions (Mission Churches)

Religious outposts spreading Christianity in the Americas.

Divine Right

Belief that monarchs derive their authority to rule directly from God.

Westernization

Adoption of Western European ideas, technology, and culture, notably by Russia under Peter the Great.

Boyars

Russian nobility, often controlled or suppressed by tsars like Peter the Great.

Peter the Great

Russian tsar who modernized Russia by implementing Western reforms and building St. Petersburg.

Catherine the Great

Russian empress who expanded borders, embraced Enlightenment ideas, and strengthened the monarchy.

Frederick the Great

Prussian king known for military innovations, Enlightenment policies, and expanding Prussian power.

Queen Elizabeth of England

English monarch who strengthened the economy, defeated the Spanish Armada, and maintained relative religious peace.

Spanish Inquisition

Religious tribunal used by Spain to enforce Catholic orthodoxy and suppress dissent.

Louis XVI

French king during the French Revolution, executed for his inability to address economic and social crises.

Palace of Versailles

Lavish palace built by Louis XIV to display his power and control the nobility.

Peterhof Palace

Russian palace built by Peter the Great, reflecting Western architectural styles.

Winter Palace

Russian imperial residence in St. Petersburg, symbolizing tsarist power.

St. Petersburg

Russian city built by Peter the Great as a 'window to the West' and symbol of modernization.

Expansion of Borders

A hallmark of absolute rulers, achieved through war or diplomacy to increase territorial control and power.

Scientific Revolution

A period of great advancements in science and mathematics during the 16th and 17th centuries, challenging traditional views of the universe and laying the groundwork for the Enlightenment.

Enlightenment

An intellectual movement in the 18th century that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority, particularly in government and religion.

John Locke

English philosopher known for his belief in natural rights (life, liberty, and property) and the idea of government as a social contract. His ideas influenced liberal political thought.

Rousseau

Swiss-French philosopher who believed in the concept of the 'general will' and argued for a government that reflects the collective interests of the people, as outlined in his work The Social Contract.

Social Contract

The theory that individuals consent, either explicitly or implicitly, to surrender some of their freedoms in exchange for protection and the benefits of organized society. Proposed by thinkers like Locke and Rousseau.

Montesquieu

French political philosopher who advocated for the separation of powers in government to prevent tyranny, influencing modern democratic governance.

Separation of Power/Checks and Balances

Montesquieu’s idea that government power should be divided into branches (executive, legislative, and judicial) to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful and to ensure mutual accountability.

Mary Wollstonecraft

English writer and advocate for women's rights. In A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, she argued that women should have the same educational and social opportunities as men.

Voltaire

French philosopher and writer known for his advocacy of freedom of speech, religious tolerance, and criticism of traditional institutions, particularly the Catholic Church and absolute monarchy.

Philosophe

Intellectuals of the Enlightenment in France who promoted reason, reform, and the idea that human society could be improved through rational thought and dialogue.

Salon

Social gatherings, often hosted by women, where Enlightenment ideas were discussed, often involving philosophers, writers, and artists, promoting the spread of new ideas.

Deism

A philosophical belief that God created the universe but does not intervene in human affairs, emphasizing reason and the observation of the natural world as a way to understand God.

Adam Smith

Scottish economist and philosopher known for his work The Wealth of Nations, where he outlined the principles of free-market capitalism and the idea of Laissez-faire economics.