World History ll Midterm
Flashcards: Renaissance and Reformation
Renaissance
Definition: A cultural movement (14th–17th century) emphasizing art, literature, and science, marking a rebirth of classical learning.
Leonardo da Vinci
Definition: Renaissance artist, inventor, and scientist; painted the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper.
Mona Lisa
Definition: Famous painting by Leonardo da Vinci, renowned for its realism and enigmatic smile.
Fresco
Definition: A technique of painting on wet plaster, used in Renaissance masterpieces like Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel.
Vernacular
Definition: Writing in the local language instead of Latin, making literature more accessible.
Johannes Gutenberg
Definition: Inventor of the printing press, which revolutionized the spread of knowledge.
Perspective
Definition: Artistic technique creating depth and dimension in paintings, developed during the Renaissance.
Michelangelo
Definition: Renaissance artist known for sculpting David and painting the Sistine Chapel ceiling.
David
Definition: Michelangelo's iconic marble statue representing the biblical hero, symbolizing human perfection.
Hans Holbein
Definition: Northern Renaissance painter famous for realistic portraits, including Henry VIII.
Humanism
Definition: Renaissance intellectual movement emphasizing human potential and achievements.
Martin Luther
Definition: German monk who sparked the Reformation by posting the 95 Theses, challenging the Catholic Church.
John Calvin
Definition: Reformation leader who developed Calvinism, emphasizing predestination and strict moral codes.
Predestination
Definition: Calvinist belief that God has already determined who will achieve salvation.
Henry VIII
Definition: King of England who broke from the Catholic Church to establish the Church of England.
Annul
Definition: To declare a marriage invalid; Henry VIII sought this to end his marriage to Catherine of Aragon.
Council of Trent
Definition: Catholic meeting to reform the Church and combat Protestantism, part of the Catholic Reformation.
Ignatius Loyola
Definition: Founder of the Jesuits, a Catholic order focused on education and missionary work.
Jesuits
Definition: Members of the Society of Jesus, who spread Catholicism through education and missionary efforts.
Thirty Years' War
Definition: Religious conflict (1618–1648) between Catholics and Protestants in Europe, ending with the Peace of Westphalia.
Peace of Augsburg
Definition: Agreement allowing German princes to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism for their territories.
Church of England
Definition: Protestant church established by Henry VIII after breaking from the Catholic Church.
Anne Boleyn
Definition: Henry VIII’s second wife; her execution led to political and religious upheaval.
“Bloody” Mary
Definition: Mary I of England, known for her persecution of Protestants during her reign.
Causes of the Renaissance:
Rediscovery of classical texts, economic growth in Italy, and innovations in art and science.
Why the Renaissance Happened in Italy First:
Wealthy city-states, patronage of the arts, and proximity to ancient Roman ruins.
Difference Between Italian and Northern Renaissance:
Italian: Focused on classical themes and human form.
Northern: Emphasized religious reform and detailed realism.
Causes of the Protestant Reformation:
Corruption in the Catholic Church (indulgences), Renaissance questioning of authority, and Martin Luther's 95 Theses.
Effects of the Protestant Reformation:
Rise of Protestant churches, religious wars, and decline of Catholic Church's power.
Reformation’s Impact on Society:
Increased literacy, religious diversity, and changes in marriage and education.
Why Henry VIII Broke with the Church:
Wanted an annulment to remarry and produce a male heir; led to the creation of the Church of England.
Prejudices Against Women and Jews During Reformation:
Women were often excluded from leadership roles; Jews faced forced conversions and persecution.
Long-term Effects of the Jesuits:
Spread of Catholic education, establishment of universities, and global missionary work.
Three Key Elements of the Catholic Reformation:
Council of Trent: Reforming Church practices.
Jesuits: Counteracting Protestantism.
Inquisition: Enforcing orthodoxy and combating heresy.
Flashcards: European Exploration, Colonization, and Atlantic World
Key Terms
God, Gold, Glory
Definition: Motivations for European exploration: spreading Christianity, acquiring wealth, and achieving national prestige.
Caravel
Definition: A small, fast, and maneuverable ship used in exploration.
Lateen Sails
Definition: Triangular sails enabling ships to sail against the wind.
Astrolabe
Definition: Navigation tool for determining latitude using celestial objects.
Compass
Definition: Tool for navigation that indicates magnetic north.
Wind Patterns
Definition: Understanding of global winds like trade winds, aiding transoceanic travel.
Henry the Navigator
Definition: Portuguese prince who advanced navigation and exploration techniques.
Christopher Columbus
Definition: Italian explorer who reached the Americas in 1492, initiating European colonization.
Ferdinand Magellan
Definition: Explorer who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe.
Conquests and Colonization
Conquistadors
Definition: Spanish conquerors of the Americas, such as Cortés and Pizarro.
Aztecs
Definition: Mesoamerican empire conquered by Hernán Cortés in 1521.
Tenochtitlan
Definition: Aztec capital, known for its grandeur and canals.
Hernán Cortés
Definition: Spanish conquistador who overthrew the Aztec Empire.
Montezuma II
Definition: Last Aztec emperor, captured and killed during Spanish conquest.
Smallpox
Definition: European disease that devastated native populations.
Inca
Definition: South American empire conquered by Francisco Pizarro.
Francisco Pizarro
Definition: Spanish conquistador who overthrew the Inca Empire.
Atahualpa
Definition: Last Inca ruler, executed by Pizarro.
La Malinche (Doña Marina)
Definition: Indigenous woman who acted as an interpreter and ally for Cortés.
Colonial Economy and Trade
Silver (Potosí)
Definition: Rich silver mines in Bolivia that fueled global trade.
Treaty of Tordesillas
Definition: Agreement dividing the New World between Spain and Portugal.
Joint Stock Company
Definition: Business model for funding exploration and colonization, reducing individual risk.
Mercantilism
Definition: Economic theory prioritizing wealth accumulation through trade surpluses.
Subsidies
Definition: Financial support from governments to encourage industries.
Tariffs
Definition: Taxes on imports to protect domestic markets.
Columbian Exchange and Plantations
Columbian Exchange
Definition: Global exchange of goods, crops, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds.
Cash Crops
Definition: Profitable crops like sugar, grown on plantations.
Sugar
Definition: High-demand cash crop cultivated in the Americas.
Plantations
Definition: Large farms in colonies reliant on enslaved labor.
Horses
Definition: Animals introduced to the Americas, transforming Indigenous societies.
Potatoes
Definition: New World crop that became a European staple.
Corn
Definition: American crop that spread worldwide, increasing food security.
Llamas
Definition: Domesticated animals of the Andes used for transport and wool.
Slave Trade and Social Systems
Triangle Trade
Definition: Trade route connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas, trading goods, enslaved people, and resources.
Middle Passage
Definition: Deadly voyage transporting enslaved Africans to the Americas.
Benin
Definition: African kingdom involved in the Atlantic slave trade.
Queen Nzinga of Ndongo
Definition: African leader who resisted Portuguese colonization and the slave trade.
Maroon Societies
Definition: Communities of escaped enslaved people in the Americas.
Colonial Society and Religion
Peninsulares
Definition: Spanish-born elites in colonial Latin America.
Creoles
Definition: Colonists of European descent born in the Americas.
Mestizos
Definition: Mixed-race individuals of European and Indigenous ancestry.
Mulattoes
Definition: Mixed-race individuals of European and African ancestry.
Encomienda System
Definition: Spanish labor system exploiting Indigenous people.
Mita
Definition: Inca labor system adapted by Spanish colonists for mining.
Bartolomé de Las Casas
Definition: Spanish priest who advocated for Indigenous rights.
Viceroys
Definition: Spanish royal governors in colonies.
Día de Los Muertos
Definition: Mexican holiday blending Indigenous and Catholic traditions.
Virgen de Guadalupe
Definition: Religious symbol uniting Indigenous and Catholic identities in Mexico.
Missions (Mission Churches)
Definition: Religious outposts spreading Christianity in the Americas.
Key Questions
Causes of European Exploration:
Desire for wealth, spread of Christianity, and technological advances.
Causes of the Atlantic Slave Trade:
High demand for labor on plantations; Indigenous populations decimated by disease.
Technological Advances in Exploration:
Caravel, compass, astrolabe, and knowledge of wind patterns.
Effects of Exploration and Colonization:
European dominance, decimation of Indigenous populations, and cultural blending.
Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade:
African diaspora, economic growth for Europe, and devastation in African societies.
Effects of the Columbian Exchange:
Exchange of crops, animals, and diseases; global population growth; and economic shifts.
Spanish Colonialism:
Cultural: Syncretism between Indigenous and European traditions.
Social: Rigid class system based on ancestry and race.
Economic: Reliance on silver mining, cash crops, and forced labor systems.
Favorable Balance of Trade:
Wealth accumulation through exports; bullion essential for economic power.
Spanish Advantages Over Natives:
Advanced weapons, horses, and immunity to diseases like smallpox.
Flashcards: Absolutism and Absolute Rulers
Key Terms
Divine Right
Definition: Belief that monarchs derive their authority to rule directly from God.
Westernization
Definition: Adoption of Western European ideas, technology, and culture, notably by Russia under Peter the Great.
Boyars
Definition: Russian nobility, often controlled or suppressed by tsars like Peter the Great.
Peter the Great
Definition: Russian tsar who modernized Russia by implementing Western reforms and building St. Petersburg.
Catherine the Great
Definition: Russian empress who expanded borders, embraced Enlightenment ideas, and strengthened the monarchy.
Frederick the Great
Definition: Prussian king known for military innovations, Enlightenment policies, and expanding Prussian power.
Queen Elizabeth of England
Definition: English monarch who strengthened the economy, defeated the Spanish Armada, and maintained relative religious peace.
Spanish Inquisition
Definition: Religious tribunal used by Spain to enforce Catholic orthodoxy and suppress dissent.
Louis XVI
Definition: French king during the French Revolution, executed for his inability to address economic and social crises.
Palace of Versailles
Definition: Lavish palace built by Louis XIV to display his power and control the nobility.
Peterhof Palace
Definition: Russian palace built by Peter the Great, reflecting Western architectural styles.
Winter Palace
Definition: Russian imperial residence in St. Petersburg, symbolizing tsarist power.
St. Petersburg
Definition: Russian city built by Peter the Great as a "window to the West" and symbol of modernization.
Expansion of Borders
Definition: A hallmark of absolute rulers, achieved through war or diplomacy to increase territorial control and power.
Questions to Consider
What is Absolutism?
A political system where monarchs hold complete authority over the government and lives of their subjects.
How Did Absolute Rulers Control Nobles?
Through centralized administration, creating elaborate courts, and limiting noble privileges.
Example: Louis XIV required nobles to live at Versailles under his supervision.
Why Was Louis XIV Considered the Best Example of an Absolute Ruler?
Centralized power in himself, controlled the nobility, expanded France's borders, and displayed his authority through the grandeur of Versailles.
Effects of Absolute Rule
Cultural Effects:
England: Flourishing arts under Elizabeth I, but limited absolute rule due to Parliament.
Prussia: Military dominance became central to culture under Frederick the Great.
Russia: Westernized arts, fashion, and architecture under Peter and Catherine the Great.
France: Lavish cultural patronage under Louis XIV, with Versailles as a cultural center.
Social Effects:
England: Greater religious tolerance compared to other absolutist states.
Prussia: Strict class structure tied to military service.
Russia: Serfdom expanded under Peter and Catherine, keeping peasants oppressed.
France: Sharp divisions between nobles and commoners, contributing to the French Revolution.
Political Effects:
England: Limited monarchy after the English Civil War and Glorious Revolution.
Prussia: Centralized power focused on a militarized state.
Russia: Tsars exerted autocratic control, reducing noble influence.
France: Louis XIV's absolute rule became a model but led to financial instability.
Economic Effects:
England: Mercantilism strengthened under Elizabeth; colonization expanded trade.
Prussia: Focus on military spending shaped the economy.
Russia: Modernized industry and infrastructure under Peter the Great.
France: Heavy taxation on commoners funded Louis XIV’s wars and Versailles, leading to economic crises.
Comparison of Rulers
Similarities:
All rulers centralized power and sought to expand their nations' influence through war, diplomacy, or cultural reforms.
They used symbols of authority (palaces, military success) to legitimize their rule.
Differences:
Peter the Great focused on Westernization, while Louis XIV emphasized French cultural supremacy.
Elizabeth I relied on Parliament, unlike the autocratic rulers of France and Russia.
Frederick the Great combined Enlightenment ideas with militarism, contrasting with the more lavish, court-focused rule of Louis XIV.
Flashcards: Islamic Empires (Ottomans, Safavids, Mughals)
Key Terms
Sultan
Definition: The absolute ruler of the Ottoman Empire, with both political and religious authority, often claiming to be the caliph (successor of the Prophet Muhammad).
Vizier
Definition: High-ranking Ottoman official, usually the chief advisor to the Sultan, and in charge of managing the empire’s administration.
Pashas
Definition: Provincial governors in the Ottoman Empire who were responsible for tax collection, maintaining order, and military leadership in their assigned regions.
Janissaries
Definition: Elite Ottoman infantry, initially made up of Christian boys taken via the Devshirme system, trained to serve as soldiers loyal to the Sultan.
Caliphs
Definition: Religious leaders, considered successors of the Prophet Muhammad, who ruled the Islamic world. The Sultan was also regarded as the Caliph of Islam in the Ottoman Empire.
Safavids
Definition: A Shia Muslim dynasty that ruled Persia (modern-day Iran) from 1501 to 1736, known for their cultural achievements and strong centralized state.
Mughals
Definition: A Muslim empire that ruled most of the Indian subcontinent from the 16th to the mid-19th century, known for its rich cultural, architectural, and economic achievements.
Questions to Consider
How did the leader of each empire organize his leadership (administrators)?
Ottoman Empire: The Sultan governed with the help of viziers (advisors), pashas (regional governors), and janissaries (elite soldiers).
Safavid Empire: The Shah was supported by viziers and regional governors, similar to the Ottoman structure.
Mughal Empire: The Emperor worked with nobles, military leaders, and local administrators like zamindars (landowners) to manage governance.
a. What was the name of each group of administrators inside each empire?
Ottomans: Viziers, Pashas, Janissaries.
Safavids: Viziers, Qizilbash (tribal leaders).
Mughals: Zamindars, Nobles, Military commanders.
b. What were their responsibilities?
Janissaries (Ottomans): Elite soldiers, served in the military and government, protecting the Sultan.
Pashas (Ottomans): Governors who maintained control in their provinces, managed taxes, and oversaw the military.
Zamindars (Mughals): Local landowners who collected taxes and administered their regions, sometimes acting as military leaders.
How did the Manchus, a small % of the population, maintain power over a much larger group of Chinese subjects?
The Manchus maintained control by forming alliances with Chinese elites, using a dual system of governance (Manchu and Chinese officials), and integrating Chinese culture while maintaining their own distinct identity. They also employed a military presence and the banner system to control the population.
How did the Mughals maintain power over a large Hindu population?
The Mughals practiced religious tolerance, with rulers like Akbar encouraging interfaith dialogue and promoting Hindu officials within the empire. The Mughal elite also relied on a blend of Islamic and local Hindu traditions to create a cohesive governance structure.
What factors contributed to Ottoman success?
Strong military, efficient administration, strategic location connecting Europe and Asia, and the effective use of the Janissaries. Their control of key trade routes and their religious legitimacy as caliphs also helped consolidate power.
Why was the lack of a permanent aristocracy an advantage?
The lack of a hereditary aristocracy in the Ottoman Empire prevented the rise of powerful, independent noble families who could challenge the Sultan. Instead, power was centralized in the Sultan’s court and administered by loyal bureaucrats and military leaders.
What was Devshirme?
The Devshirme was a system where Christian boys from the Balkans were taken by the Ottomans, converted to Islam, and trained as elite soldiers (Janissaries) or bureaucrats in the Ottoman administration.
What was the role of the Janissaries in the Ottoman Empire?
The Janissaries were the Sultan’s elite infantry corps, often chosen through the Devshirme system. They played a key military role, helped control the empire, and were sometimes involved in politics and governance.
In what ways was the Ottoman Empire diverse, and which peoples benefitted from this diversity and why?
The Ottoman Empire was diverse, comprising various ethnic, religious, and cultural groups, including Arabs, Greeks, Armenians, and Jews. Religious tolerance allowed many groups, particularly non-Muslims, to practice their faith and have legal recognition. Sy.
What other titles did the Sultans claim, and why is this important?
The Sultans of the Ottoman Empire claimed the title of Caliph and Protector of the Holy Cities (Mecca and Medina), which reinforced their legitimacy as religious and political leaders of all Muslims.
How did the Sultan control his bureaucracy?
The Sultan controlled his bureaucracy by centralizing power and using loyal officials such as viziers and pashas. The military (including Janissaries) also supported the Sultan’s rule, ensuring that dissent within the bureaucracy was minimized.
What are some unanticipated outcomes of the Ottoman Empire?
The Ottoman Empire, though initially successful, faced challenges in the 17th and 18th centuries, including military defeats, economic difficulties, and rising nationalism. Its attempts to modernize and reform were often slow, contributing to its eventual decline
Flashcards: Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment Thinkers
Key Terms
Scientific Revolution
Definition: A period of great advancements in science and mathematics during the 16th and 17th centuries, challenging traditional views of the universe and laying the groundwork for the Enlightenment.
Enlightenment
Definition: An intellectual movement in the 18th century that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority, particularly in government and religion.
John Locke
Definition: English philosopher known for his belief in natural rights (life, liberty, and property) and the idea of government as a social contract. His ideas influenced liberal political thought.
Rousseau
Definition: Swiss-French philosopher who believed in the concept of the "general will" and argued for a government that reflects the collective interests of the people, as outlined in his work The Social Contract.
Social Contract
Definition: The theory that individuals consent, either explicitly or implicitly, to surrender some of their freedoms in exchange for protection and the benefits of organized society. Proposed by thinkers like Locke and Rousseau.
Montesquieu
Definition: French political philosopher who advocated for the separation of powers in government to prevent tyranny, influencing modern democratic governance.
Separation of Power/Checks and Balances
Definition: Montesquieu’s idea that government power should be divided into branches (executive, legislative, and judicial) to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful and to ensure mutual accountability.
Mary Wollstonecraft
Definition: English writer and advocate for women's rights. In A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, she argued that women should have the same educational and social opportunities as men.
Voltaire
Definition: French philosopher and writer known for his advocacy of freedom of speech, religious tolerance, and criticism of traditional institutions, particularly the Catholic Church and absolute monarchy.
Philosophe
Definition: Intellectuals of the Enlightenment in France who promoted reason, reform, and the idea that human society could be improved through rational thought and dialogue.
Salon
Definition: Social gatherings, often hosted by women, where Enlightenment ideas were discussed, often involving philosophers, writers, and artists, promoting the spread of new ideas.
Deism
Definition: A philosophical belief that God created the universe but does not intervene in human affairs, emphasizing reason and the observation of the natural world as a way to understand God.
Adam Smith
Definition: Scottish economist and philosopher known for his work The Wealth of Nations, where he outlined the principles of free-market capitalism and the idea of Laissez-faire economics.
Laissez-faire
Definition: Economic theory advocating minimal government interference in business affairs, emphasizing that economies function best when individuals pursue their self-interests in a competitive market.
Questions to Consider
How did the Scientific Revolution lead to the Enlightenment?
The Scientific Revolution encouraged a spirit of inquiry, observation, and skepticism of traditional authority, which directly influenced Enlightenment thinkers to apply reason and critical thinking to social, political, and religious institutions.
Main beliefs of Enlightenment thinkers listed above:
John Locke: Believed in natural rights (life, liberty, property) and that government’s role was to protect these rights. Advocated for the idea of a government based on consent of the governed.
Rousseau: Advocated for a government based on the "general will" of the people and argued that political legitimacy comes from the consent of the governed. His ideas influenced democratic revolutions.
Montesquieu: Advocated for the separation of powers in government to avoid tyranny and preserve political liberty. His ideas heavily influenced the structure of modern democratic governments, especially in the U.S.
Mary Wollstonecraft: Championed women's rights and believed in the equality of women in education and society, arguing that women should have the same opportunities as men to contribute to society.
Voltaire: Advocated for freedom of speech, religious tolerance, and separation of church and state. He criticized the Catholic Church and despotic rulers, promoting secularism and individual freedoms.
Philosophes: Advocated for progress, reason, and the belief that humans could improve their society through intellectual efforts and critical thinking.
Deism: Belief in a rational, non-intervening creator God who created the universe but did not interfere with human affairs, leading to a more secular and scientific worldview.
Adam Smith: Advocated for free-market capitalism, arguing that economies function best when the government allows people to pursue their self-interest through competition. He is often called the father of modern economics.
Laissez-faire: Economic policy that promotes minimal government intervention in business, allowing the natural forces of supply and demand to govern economic activities.
Flashcard Definitions: Major Enlightenment Thinkers and Revolutions
Enlightenment Thinkers and Concepts
1. Major Enlightenment Thinkers
Definition: Philosophers who promoted reason, individual rights, and the belief that society could improve through knowledge and rational governance. Ex: John Locke, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire, etc.
2. Montesquieu
Definition: French political philosopher who promoted the idea of the separation of powers in government (executive, legislative, judicial) to prevent tyranny and protect liberty.
3. Salons
Definition: Social gatherings in the 17th and 18th centuries where intellectuals, writers, and philosophers discussed Enlightenment ideas, often hosted by women in private homes.
4. Philosophes
Definition: French intellectuals who advanced Enlightenment ideas such as reason, freedom, and progress, promoting reforms in society, politics, and religion.
5. Checks and Balances
Definition: A principle of government where different branches (executive, legislative, judicial) can limit each other’s power to prevent one branch from becoming too powerful.
6. Separation of Power
Definition: Montesquieu’s idea that government should be divided into different branches to ensure no one group or individual has too much power. This principle is seen in modern democratic systems.
7. Mary Wollstonecraft
Definition: British writer and advocate for women's rights, arguing that women should have equal educational opportunities and social rights as men.
8. Popular Sovereignty
Definition: The concept that the authority of government comes from the consent of the governed. The people have the ultimate power in a democratic society.
9. Effects of the Enlightenment
Definition: The Enlightenment led to reforms in government, education, and religion. It inspired revolutions, including the American, French, and Haitian revolutions, and promoted ideas like democracy, liberty, and human rights.
10. Who benefited from the Enlightenment?
Definition: The Enlightenment mostly benefited the middle and upper classes, particularly men, as it promoted individual rights and social reforms. However, it had less impact on women, lower classes, and non-Europeans, who were largely excluded from the political and intellectual movements.
Revolutions
US Revolution (Political)
1. Why did the US Revolution begin?
Answer: The US Revolution began due to colonial resentment over British taxes, lack of representation in Parliament, and restrictions on colonial freedoms.
2. Two parts of the revolution
Answer: The first part was the struggle for independence from Britain; the second was the creation of a new political system based on democratic principles, notably through the drafting of the Constitution.
3. Who supported the US Revolution?
Answer: The Revolution was supported by colonists who wanted independence, including Patriots, along with foreign allies like France.
French Revolution (Social)
1. Estates General
Definition: A meeting of representatives from France’s three estates (clergy, nobility, and commoners) called by King Louis XVI in 1789 to address the country’s financial crisis.
2. Three estates
Answer:
First Estate: Clergy, enjoyed privileges like exemption from taxes.
Second Estate: Nobility, held land and power, also exempt from taxes.
Third Estate: Commoners (peasants, workers, bourgeoisie), burdened with taxes and little political power.
3. Bastille
Definition: A prison stormed by revolutionaries on July 14, 1789, symbolizing the tyranny of the French monarchy. Its fall marked the beginning of the French Revolution.
4. Louis XVI
Definition: King of France during the French Revolution, whose inability to address the country’s financial crisis and the unrest led to his downfall and execution.
5. Marie Antoinette
Definition: Queen of France, wife of Louis XVI. She was unpopular for her extravagant spending, and was executed during the revolution.
6. Events of summer 1789
Answer: By the end of the summer, the National Assembly was formed, the Bastille was stormed, and the Declaration of the Rights of Man was adopted.
7. Changes in France’s social structure
Answer: The revolution abolished the feudal system, ended the privileges of the nobility, and promoted equality among citizens.
8. Changes in France's political structure
Answer: The monarchy was abolished, and a republic was established with new democratic ideals and institutions like the National Convention.
9. How did the French Revolution "end"?
Answer: The revolution ended with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, who declared himself Emperor, ending the republican phase of the revolution.
10. Maximilien Robespierre
Definition: Radical leader during the French Revolution who led the Reign of Terror, overseeing the execution of thousands, including King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette.
11. Committee of Public Safety
Definition: A powerful group led by Robespierre responsible for executing the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution.
12. Guillotine
Definition: A device used for executions by beheading, symbolizing the Revolution’s radical period of punishment.
13. Napoleon
Definition: Military leader who rose to power during the French Revolution, becoming Emperor of France and spreading revolutionary ideals across Europe.
14. Causes of the French Revolution
Answer: Social inequality, financial crisis due to war debts, and Enlightenment ideas about liberty and equality led to the Revolution.
Haitian Revolution (Social and Political)
1. Saint Domingue
Definition: The French colony that became the site of the Haitian Revolution, known for producing sugar and coffee, vital to France's economy.
2. Why was Saint Domingue important?
Answer: It was one of France's richest colonies, producing a significant portion of the world's sugar and coffee.
3. Grand Blancs and Petit Blancs
Answer:
Grand Blancs: Wealthy white landowners who controlled the economy.
Petit Blancs: Lower-class whites, including artisans and shopkeepers, who were often resentful of the wealth and power of the Grand Blancs.
4. Toussaint L'Ouverture
Definition: Former slave and leader of the Haitian Revolution, who helped liberate Haiti from French colonial rule.
5. End result of the Haitian Revolution
Answer: Haiti became the first independent black republic and abolished slavery.
6. Revolutionary ideas in Haiti
Answer: Ideas from the French and American revolutions spread to Haiti, inspiring enslaved people to fight for freedom.
7. Haiti’s struggles after revolution
Answer: Haiti struggled economically due to isolation, lack of resources, and political instability.
8. Causes and effects
Answer: The revolution was caused by the brutal conditions of slavery and racial inequality. The effect was Haiti’s independence but long-term economic hardship.
Latin American Revolution
1. Creole
Definition: A person of Spanish descent born in the Americas, often part of the elite class but excluded from the highest political positions.
2. Jose de San Martin
Definition: Revolutionary leader who played a key role in the independence movements of Argentina, Chile, and Peru.
3. Simón Bolívar
Definition: Venezuelan military leader who led the independence movements of several South American countries, including Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.
4. Fears and divisions in Latin American Revolutions
Answer: Divisions between social classes, racial groups, and regional interests, as well as fears of social and political instability after independence.
5. Common factors in Latin American Revolutions
Answer: Colonial exploitation, Enlightenment ideas, and the influence of other revolutions (American and French) were key factors in the revolutions across Latin America.
Key Questions to Consider
1. Four regions in Atlantic Revolutions
Answer: North America (US), France, Haiti, and Latin America.
2. New ideas in the Atlantic Revolutions
Answer: Ideas of democracy, liberty, equality, nationalism, and human rights.
3. Causes of the French Revolution
Answer: Social (inequality), political (absolute monarchy), economic (financial crisis), and cultural (Enlightenment ideas).
4. Impact of Enlightenment on French Revolution
Answer: Enlightenment ideas inspired calls for equality, freedom, and democratic governance, leading to conflict between the privileged classes and the common people.
5. Impact on the Declaration of Rights of Man
Answer: Enlightenment ideals of liberty and equality, along with documents like the American Declaration of Independence, influenced the Declaration of Rights of Man.
6. Committee of Public Safety’s goal
Answer: To protect the revolution from internal and external threats, using extreme measures such as the Reign of Terror.
7. Effects of the French Revolution
Answer: Social (abolition of feudal privileges), political (rise of democracy), and cultural (promotion of secularism, nationalism, and revolutionary ideals).