US HISTORY SECOND HALF

Neutrality Acts (1935)

Laws passed by Congress forbidding the US from selling or sending weapons/supplies to nations at war; kept America out of WWII initially.

Cash and Carry (1939)

Policy allowing warring nations to buy supplies from the US only if they paid cash upfront and transported goods themselves; helped Britain without technically breaking neutrality.

Lend-Lease Act (1941)

US policy allowing countries "vital to US defense" (mainly Britain and USSR) to borrow war materials and pay back later; moved US closer to entering WWII.

Selective Service Act (1940)

Set up the framework for a military draft in the US in preparation for potential entry into WWII.

Pearl Harbor

December 7, 1941 — Japanese surprise attack on the US Naval Base in Hawaii; directly caused the US to enter WWII.

Axis Powers

The alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan in WWII.

Allied Powers

The alliance of Great Britain, France, the USSR, and (later) the United States in WWII.

Native American Code Talkers

Native Americans who used their indigenous languages to create military codes during WWII that the Japanese could not break.

Women's Auxiliary Corps (WACs/WASPs/WAVES)

Women's military service organizations in WWII — Women's Army Corps, Women's Airforce Service Pilots, and Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service.

War Production Board

WWII agency where the government decided who produced what and how much; part of the Wartime New Deal to coordinate the war economy.

Executive Order 8802

Issued by FDR; banned racial discrimination in the defense industry and federal agencies during WWII.

Bracero Program

WWII-era program that recruited Mexican nationals for mostly agricultural labor in the US, with an accelerated path to citizenship.

Rosie the Riveter

Cultural symbol of women entering the workforce during WWII; represented the shift of women into industrial and defense jobs (~36% of the workforce).

Food for Victory Campaign

WWII home-front effort that made eating leftovers and conserving food patriotic to support troops.

Victory Gardens

Civilian gardens grown during WWII to produce food for home use, freeing up commercial food supplies for soldiers; produced over 1 billion tons of food.

Rationing (WWII)

Government limits on goods like gas, metals (copper, nickel), rubber, and fabrics (nylon) to redirect resources to the war effort.

Hershey D-Ration Bar

A specially formulated chocolate bar made for US soldiers in WWII; most soldiers disliked its taste but it was designed for nutrition and durability.

Mars M&Ms

Candy created for the US Military in WWII; the candy coating prevented melting and was originally sold exclusively to the military.

Double V Campaign

African American campaign during WWII calling for "Double Victory" — victory against fascism abroad AND victory against racism at home.

Tuskegee Airmen

First Black military pilots in the US; fought in WWII and became a foundation for the Civil Rights Movement by proving Black excellence under segregation.

Executive Order 9066

FDR's 1942 order authorizing the forced relocation and internment of Japanese Americans (Issei and Nisei) into camps during WWII.

Korematsu v. United States

Supreme Court case challenging Executive Order 9066 on 14th Amendment grounds; the Court ruled against Korematsu, upholding Japanese internment on national security grounds.

Crisis Over Femininity (WWII)

Cultural anxiety during WWII that women working was too masculine; addressed through the Pin-Up Girl and USO Hostesses, who reminded men of traditional gender roles and heterosexuality.

The Big Three

FDR (US), Winston Churchill (Britain), and Josef Stalin (USSR) — the Allied leaders who met at Tehran (1943), Yalta (Feb 1945), and Potsdam (July–Aug 1945) to plan WWII strategy and post-war order.

D-Day

June 6, 1944 — Massive Allied invasion of Normandy, France, opening a Western Front against Germany and turning the tide of WWII in Europe.

V-E Day

May 8, 1945 — Victory in Europe Day; Germany's official surrender ending WWII in Europe.

Pacific Theater

The WWII arena of war in Asia and the Pacific; a bigger direct threat to the US than the European theater, featuring island-hopping strategy, Kamikaze pilots, and the atomic bombings.

Island Hopping Strategy

General MacArthur's WWII Pacific strategy of capturing key islands to move progressively closer to Japan for a final assault.

Manhattan Project

Top-secret US government program to develop the atomic bomb; major sites included Los Alamos (NM), Oak Ridge (TN), and Hanford (WA).

Hiroshima

August 6, 1945 — First atomic bomb dropped by the US; approximately 100,000 people died on the first day, with many more dying later from radiation.

Nagasaki

August 9, 1945 — Second atomic bomb dropped by the US; approximately 60,000 died on the first day; Japan surrendered shortly after.

United Nations

International organization created after WWII to prevent another global war; includes the Security Council, General Assembly, and International Court of Justice.

GI Bill (1944)

Post-WWII law giving veterans unemployment benefits, college funding, and home/farm loans; however, benefits were not equally available — Black veterans and women faced discrimination.

What is a Cold War?

A global, political, and ideological conflict between the US and USSR (1945–1991) with no direct military battle between the two superpowers; fought through proxy wars, arms races, and ideology.

The Long Telegram (1946)

Written by diplomat George Kennan; recommended the US "play the long game" through Containment Policy focused on Europe and economic aid to prevent Soviet expansion.

Containment Policy

US Cold War strategy of stopping the spread of communism without direct war with the USSR; originated from Kennan's Long Telegram.

Truman Doctrine

President Truman's anti-communist foreign policy; pledged US support to any nation resisting communist takeover, beginning with Greece and Turkey.

Marshall Plan (1947)

$13 billion in US economic aid to rebuild Western Europe after WWII; goal was to revitalize capitalism and foster democracy to prevent communist takeover.

NATO (1949)

North Atlantic Treaty Organization; mutual defense pact committing the US to the military defense of Western Europe against Soviet aggression.

NSC-68 (1950)

US policy document that expanded containment to "militarized containment" beyond Europe, after the USSR got atomic weapons and China fell to communism; greatly increased defense spending.

McCarthyism / Second Red Scare

Senator Joseph McCarthy's anti-communist witch hunt (early 1950s); claimed 205 alleged communists were in the government, created climate of fear and political persecution.

HUAC

House Un-American Activities Committee (1945); investigated alleged communist influence in US institutions; associated with Hollywood blacklists and McCarthyism.

Korean War (1950–1953)

North Korea (communist) invaded South Korea; the US entered to contain communism; ended in an armistice at the 38th parallel — a stalemate with no peace treaty (technically still ongoing).

New Republicanism (Eisenhower)

Eisenhower's political philosophy of limited government and free markets while still accepting some social welfare programs (e.g., expanding Social Security, building the Interstate highway system).

Suburbanization

Post-WWII growth of residential communities outside cities; driven by the GI Bill, Federal Housing Administration loans, the baby boom, and car culture; represented the American Dream.

Cold War Consumerism

The idea that buying goods was patriotic during the Cold War; American consumer abundance was used to demonstrate US superiority over the USSR (e.g., the Kitchen Debate).

The Kitchen Debate (1959)

Famous argument between VP Richard Nixon and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev at a US exhibition in Moscow; Nixon argued a modern American kitchen proved US superiority through consumer goods vs. Soviet military technology.

Sputnik / NASA (1958)

The USSR launched Sputnik, the first satellite, sparking the Space Race; the US created NASA to compete and demonstrate technological superiority.

Bay of Pigs (1961)

Failed CIA-backed invasion of Cuba by ~1,200 Cuban exiles; planned under Eisenhower, launched under Kennedy; a major embarrassment for the US.

Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)

13-day confrontation after the US discovered Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba; resolved through diplomacy — Soviets removed missiles, US pledged not to invade Cuba; led to the "Hot Line" between US and USSR.

Domino Theory

Cold War belief that if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would follow like falling dominoes; used to justify US involvement in Vietnam.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution (1964)

LBJ's appeal to Congress after alleged attacks on US ships in the Gulf of Tonkin; gave the president broad authority to escalate the Vietnam War without a formal declaration of war.

Search and Destroy

US military strategy in Vietnam of finding and eliminating enemy fighters in the jungle; grueling work that also involved winning the "battle for hearts and minds."

Anti-War Movement (Vietnam)

Opposition to the Vietnam War driven by the military draft/lottery system and graphic TV coverage; grew significantly after the Tet Offensive.

The Living Room War

Nickname for the Vietnam War because it was the first war broadcast on television, bringing graphic combat footage into American homes and fueling public disillusionment.

Tet Offensive (1968)

Massive coordinated surprise attack by North Vietnam and Viet Cong on South Vietnamese cities during the Lunar New Year; shocked the American public, turned Walter Cronkite and public opinion against the war despite being a military failure for North Vietnam.

Nixon's Vietnam Strategy

Included "Vietnamization" (transferring combat to South Vietnamese forces), the "Madman Strategy" (threatening nuclear escalation), and ultimately the Paris Peace Accords to withdraw US troops.

Paris Peace Accords

1973 agreement that ended direct US military involvement in Vietnam; negotiated under Nixon.

Watergate Scandal (1972–1974)

Nixon's operatives were caught trying to bug Democratic Party offices in Washington DC; Nixon's cover-up led to impeachment proceedings and his resignation; Ford then became president via the 25th Amendment.

Brown v. Board of Education

1954 unanimous (9-0) Supreme Court ruling that school segregation violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment; overturned Plessy v. Ferguson; key NAACP victory.

Emmett Till

14-year-old Black boy from Chicago murdered in Money, Mississippi in 1955 by Roy Bryant; his open-casket funeral and the killers' acquittal (double jeopardy) galvanized the Civil Rights Movement.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

Sparked by Rosa Parks' arrest on December 1, 1955; mass boycott of Montgomery city buses demonstrated the power of nonviolent resistance and community action against segregation.

Little Rock Nine

Nine African American teenagers chosen to integrate Little Rock Central High School in 1957; faced extreme violence and required National Guard protection; showed the difficulty of school desegregation.

NAACP

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People; used legal challenges and court cases (like Brown v. Board) to fight racial discrimination.

SCLC

Southern Christian Leadership Conference; led by MLK; organized nonviolent protests against segregation.

CORE

Congress of Racial Equality; organized the Freedom Rides to enforce desegregation of interstate buses and trains.

SNCC

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee; student-led, grassroots civil rights activism; more direct and confrontational approach; organized Freedom Summer.

Sit-Ins (1960)

Students refused to leave segregated lunch counters (starting at Woolworth's in Greensboro); spread across the South; forced businesses to desegregate.

Freedom Rides (1961)

CORE-led interstate bus and train journeys into the Deep South to enforce desegregation; riders faced extreme KKK violence including bus burnings.

Birmingham Campaign (1963)

SCLC/SNCC campaign to end segregation in public spaces; police used fire hoses and dogs on protesters; televised brutality shocked the nation and increased support for civil rights laws; MLK wrote "Letter from Birmingham Jail" here.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Signed by LBJ; banned job discrimination (Title VII), expanded equality protections including gender (Title IX), and prohibited segregation in public places.

Freedom Summer (1964)

Mississippi voter registration campaign led by college students and SNCC; faced violence and murder of activists; highlighted the need for federal voting rights protection.

The Great Society

LBJ's domestic reform program; included the Civil Rights Act (1964), Voting Rights Act (1965), Immigration and Nationality Act (1965), and major education funding — seen as a "Second New Deal."

Selma and Bloody Sunday (1965)

Three marches from Selma to Montgomery; the first ("Bloody Sunday") saw John Lewis beaten on the Edmund Pettus Bridge; national TV coverage of police brutality led directly to the Voting Rights Act.

Voting Rights Act (1965)

Federal law that ended barriers to Black voting (poll taxes, literacy tests) and gave the federal government power to intervene in elections to protect voters from discrimination.

Loving v. Virginia (1967)

Supreme Court case brought by Mildred Jeter and Richard Loving (with ACLU help); ruled laws banning interracial marriage unconstitutional.

Black Power Movement

Shift in the Civil Rights Movement in the late 1960s toward Black nationalism, self-reliance, and self-defense; associated with Malcolm X, Stokely Carmichael (SNCC), and the Black Panther Party.

Malcolm X

Civil rights leader associated with the Nation of Islam and Black Nationalism; advocated Black self-reliance and self-defense; influenced the Black Power movement; split from integrationist approach of MLK.

Black Panther Party (1966)

Founded in Oakland, CA; focused on Black self-defense and self-reliance; ran community programs like free breakfast for children and free sickle-cell testing.

Native American Rights Movement

Included the National Indian Youth Council, "fish-ins," occupational protests, and the American Indian Movement (AIM); fought for tribal rights and sovereignty.

Chicano Movement

Mexican American civil rights movement; leaders included Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales and Cesar Chavez (National Farm Workers Association); fought for labor rights (grape boycott), language rights, and political representation.

Second Wave Feminism

Women's rights movement of the 1960s–70s; fought for the Equal Rights Amendment, equal pay (Equal Pay Act), reproductive rights (Roe v. Wade, 1973), and legal equality; key figures include Betty Friedan (pro-ERA) and Phyllis Schlafly (anti-ERA).

Roe v. Wade (1973)

Supreme Court ruling establishing a woman's constitutional right to abortion; major victory for the women's rights movement.

Stonewall (1969)

Uprising at a gay bar in New York City; sparked the modern LGBTQ+ rights movement and the Sexual Revolution.

HIV/AIDS Epidemic (1980s)

Major public health crisis centered in NYC and San Francisco; Reagan administration responded slowly; ACT UP used "die-ins" and protests to demand government action.

Earth Day / Environmentalism

April 22, 1970 — First Earth Day; led to the National Environmental Policy Act (1970) and Clean Air and Water initiatives.

Détente

1970s US–USSR policy of relaxing Cold War tensions through negotiation, trade, and arms control agreements; associated with Nixon; undermined by the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.

SALT I

Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty; Nixon-era agreement that limited nuclear arsenals and missile defense sites to slow the arms race and reduce the risk of mutually assured destruction.

SALT II (1979)

Arms limitation treaty signed by Carter and Brezhnev in Vienna; set limits on nuclear delivery vehicles; never ratified by the US Senate after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.

Carter Doctrine (1980)

Carter's declaration that the US would use force if necessary to protect the Persian Gulf from Soviet expansion; reflected a return to containment.

Iranian Hostage Crisis (1979)

Iranian students stormed the US Embassy in Tehran, holding more than 60 Americans hostage; lasted 444 days; severely damaged Carter's presidency.

Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan (1979)

Soviets backed the socialist side in Afghanistan's civil war; the US (CIA) armed the resistance (Mujahideen) — a proxy war; undermined détente and later contributed to the rise of the Taliban and Al-Qaeda.

President Carter Summary

One-term president (1977–1981); raised minimum wage, created the Department of Energy, invested in renewables; plagued by stagflation, the Iranian Hostage Crisis, and Afghanistan; lost to Reagan in 1980.

Trickle-Down Economics (Reaganomics)

Reagan's economic policy of major tax cuts for top earners and corporations, expecting wealth to "trickle down" to the middle class; increased national debt and did not significantly expand the middle class.

Reagan's War on Drugs

Expanded criminal punishment over treatment; caused a sharp rise in incarceration for nonviolent drug offenses; Nancy Reagan's "Just Say No" campaign and DARE program were not very effective.

Reagan's Latin American Policy

Focused on fighting communism; backed right-wing forces in El Salvador; Operation Urgent Fury (1983) — deployed US military to overthrow the leftist government in Grenada.

Reagan and the Berlin Wall

Reagan worked with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev on arms reduction; famously demanded Gorbachev "tear down this wall"; the wall fell in 1989, symbolizing the end of the Cold War.

Mikhail Gorbachev

Last Soviet leader; reformer who promoted glasnost (transparency) and attempted economic reforms; the Soviet economy was collapsing under the arms race; USSR dissolved December 25, 1991.

George H.W. Bush Domestic Policy

Raised minimum wage; passed Americans with Disabilities Act (banned disability discrimination); signed Clean Air Act; tried to reduce the federal deficit (broke "no new taxes" pledge).

The Gulf War (1991) / Operation Desert Storm

After Iraq's Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait, a US-led coalition launched a quick and decisive air and ground war; boosted US confidence post-Vietnam; Bush approval reached 89%.