Bio 30 - Midterm Review

Thomas Aquinas

• Believed that sex organs strictly for procreation

• Homosexual acts, anal intercourse, oral sex are against God’s will

Martin Luther & John Calvin

Believed that within confines of marriage, sex can be a tool to ease cares and endear a husband and wife to each other. (matches two people)

Havelock Ellis

• Wrote “On Life and Sex”

  • emphasized the love rights of women in book

  • believed oral sex, homosexuality, and masturbation can be okay as long as no one is harmed

Sigmund Freud

• wrote “The Interpretation of Dreams”

  • discussed sexuality is innate in both Men and Women

Alfred Kinsey

• Taught “Marriage and Family” course in 1938

  • collected 2,000 sex histories published in 2 reports based on face-to-face interviews

  • found that American men & women participated in masturbation, premarital sex, same sex interactions, adultery, oral sex, anal sex, etc., and that people may engage in both heterosexual and homosexual acts throughout their lives

  • Most famous survey study

  • gave lecture at UC Berkeley

Masters and Johnson

• participated in direct observation studies

  • measured vascular and muscular changes.

  • developed 4 stage Human Sexual Response Model in 1966 to describe physiological changes during arousal

What are the different Research Methods?

1. Qualitative Study

2. Survey

3. Direct Observation

4. Experimental Method

Qualitative Study 

Examines a small group of people in depth 

Advantages of a Qualitative Study

In depth explorations of behaviors, thoughts, feelings. Good for understanding context and lived experiences.

Disadvantages of Qualitative Study

• Limited generalizability of findings.

• Not suitable for many kinds of research questions.

• Possibility of inaccurate reports

Survey

data gathered from large groups of people by using questionnaires or interviews

Advantages of Surveys

• Relatively cheap and quick method for obtaining large amounts of data.

• Can obtain data from more ppl - practical to gather from experiments or thru qualitative studies

Disadvantages of Surveys

• Nonresponse bias

• Demographic bias

• Possibility of inaccurate info

Direct Observation

• observing and recording responses of participants

Advantages of Direct Observation

Eliminates possibility of data falsification

Disadvantage of Direct Observation

Behavior can be influenced by presence of observers or artificial nature of environment where observations are made

Experimental Method

Manipulates a set of conditions, or variables, and observes the effects of this manipulation on participants’ behavior

Advantage of Experimental Method

• Provides a controlled environment for testing relevant variables

• Can determine causal relationships between variables

Disadvantage of Experimental Method

Artificiality of laboratory settings can change or bias participants’ responses

Population

group of individuals being studies

Sample

• subset of individuals in population

• used to draw conclusions about population

• Larger sample = more accurate results

Random Sample

randomly chosen subset of a population

Representative sample

limited sample that provides an accurate representation of the larger target population

• has similar characteristics as population

• hard to truly get a representative sample

Convenience sample

selected based on convenience and accessibility

Volunteer bias

• tendency for those who volunteer for research to be different in some way from those that refuse

  • ex. more sexually experienced hold more positive attitudes toward sexuality than those not so experienced

Demographic bias

tendency for some members of population to be over-represented and other to be excluded 

• can happen in convenience samples

What is Hypospadias?

When opening of penis or meatus is on underside of penis instead of tip and urethra does not reach full length of penis due to abnormal/incomplete urethral closure during early embryonic development

• surgery can repair when child is 6-12

What is Peyronie’s disease?

Curvature of the penis caused by growth of fibrious scar tissue due to injury

What is Phimosis?

• Tight, non-retractable foreskin

• Not common in younger individuals, but by age 16 only 1% of people maintain this condition

• solved by circumcision

What is Priapism?

A prolonged and often painful erection

• can be due to trauma, infection, sickle cell disease, spinal cord injury & drugs such as Viagra & cocaine

• starves erectile tissue of oxygen

• can lead to impotence (failure to be able to have or maintain erection)

What is Prostatitis?

• inflammation of prostate gland usually due to bacteria entering through urethra

  • fever, chills, lower back pain

• pain in pelvis, when ejaculating, erections, urination, and life in general

• feels like they’ve got a golf ball up rear end

• treated with antibiotics

What is Varicocele?

• Dilated vein in the spermatic cord in testicles like varicose vein

• occurs when a valve in a vein fails causing blood to pool 

• impacts sperm production

• 10-20% of people between 15-25, usually left testicle

• feels like dull ache in testicle & treated w/ anti-inflammatory medications like Aleve or Motrin & sometimes surgery

Cancer

• refers to many diseases 

• development of abnormal cells that divide uncontrollably & can infiltrate & destroy normal body tissue. cells lack properly functioning cycle control system

• cancerous cells — undergone genetic changes - can happen different ways including triggered by specific viral infections

NOT all tumors are cancerous

Penile Cancer

• Rare form of cancer

• several types of penile cancer

  • squamous cell or carcinoma —> makes 95% of penile cancer cases

    • starts on/under foreskin but can appear on other parts of penis

• Not known what cause it

• Risk factors:

  • HPV, over age 60, smoke, weakened immune system because of HIV, chronic irritation due to smegma

  • seek medical advice for any sore on penis 

Testicular Cancer

• more common in younger people (20-35 years old)

• Risk factors:

  • smoking, family history, European ancestry, cryptorchidism (undescended testicle)

• Symptoms

  • hard/irregular mass in testes, fever, groin ache, heaviness in testis, tender breats, painful fluid accumulation or scrotum swelling

  • survival greater than 90% if detected early

Prostate Cancer

• often slow growing

• 2nd leading cause of cancer related death behind lung cancer for those who have prostate in US.

• Symptoms:

  • like prostatitis, pain in pelvis, lower back pain & urinary complications

• digital rectal exam to test for lumps/hardness

• Prostate specific antigen (PSA) blood test

• Treatments:

  • radiation, cryosurgery, hormone blocking treatment, removal 

• frequent sexual activity reported to reduce risk of prostate cancer

• associated with

  • old age, diet, family history, smoking, high fat & dairy consumption

What is Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)?

• enlargement of prostate - more than 50% of people with prostate glands over age of 45 fall under this category

• Due to normal hormone changes with age

• Rectal exame to test for BPH

• Restricts urethra & causes difficulty starting urine flow and increased frequency of urination

• as age increase, testosterone level decrease relative to estrogen level and this is thought to stimulate prostate growth 

• treated with medications & direct microwave therapy

Menarche

• Onset of the first menstrual flow

• sufficient adipose (fat) tissue accumulates, hormonal queues play a role in triggering menstruation

Menopause

cessation of menstruation

• defining moment in some peoples lives

• Occurs naturally or due to ovarian loss

• Avg. age in U.S. 51 - can occur as early as 30s & as late as 60s

Perimenopause

Time before menopause

Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS)

• a general term to describe emotional and physical symptoms that occur in days or weeks leading up to menstrual period. 

• symptoms - bloating, swelling breasts and pain, etc. 

Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD)

Severe symptoms preventing normal functioning

• SSRIs or selective serotonin reuptake inhabitors alleviate issues

Primary Amenorrhea

Failure to begin menstruating at puberty

• Possible causes - problems with reproductive organs, poor health, hormonal imbalance, imperforate hymen

Secondary Amenorrhea

Disruption of established menstrual cycle

• Possible causes

  • Athletes due to decrease in estrogen. Can cause decrease bone density

  • Anorexia nervosa

  • Planned can be desirable at times - BC pills such as Seasonale 

Primary Dysmenorrhea

Painful menses caused by overproduction of prostaglandins

Secondary Dysmenorrhea

Constant and often spasmodic lower abdominal pain extending to back and thighs not due to overproduction of prostaglandins

• possible causes

  • IUD

  • Pelvic inflammatory disease

  • Endometriosis

Pelvic Inflammatory Disease

Chronic infection of reproductive organs

Endometriosis

Endometrial like tissue implants in abdominal cavity responding to hormonal changes in cycle

• affects up to 10% of people with a uterus

• painful menstruation, lower back, painful intercourse

Breast Cancer

• of the people with oogenic reproductive anatomy, 1 in 8 will develop breast cancer

• cells from malignant tumors can spread to lymph nodes & other organs via blood and lymphatic systems

• Earlier detection decreases mortality - mortality can occur when cancer metastasizes to other body parts

Types of breast lumps

• Cysts (fluid-filled sacs) - usually benign (not cancerous)

• Firbroadenomas (solid, round, benign tumors)

• Malignant (cancerous) tumors - cancerous cells can spread and produce tumors else where in body (Metastasize)

Hysterectomy

Surgical removal of the uterus

Oophorectomy

Surgical removal of the ovaries

What can lead to a Hysterectomy and Oophorectomy?

• bleeding disorders, severe pelvic infections, and presence of benign (noncancerous) tumors

• Cancer of the cervix, uterus, or ovaries

• Ovarian cancer is deadliest - difficult to detect in early stages

List the name and function for #1.

Mons Veneris (Mons Pubis)

• Fleshy mound on top of pubic bone, usually covered with pubic hair 

List the name and function for #2.

Clitoral Hood (prepuce)

• fold of skin that covers/protects the clitoris

• similar to the foreskin in males

List the name and function for #3

Clitoris 

• only function is pleasure (highly sensitive) -  same number of nerve endings as head of penis

• Clitoral stimulation is more often how most women achieve an orgasm rather than vaginal insertion

List the name and function for #4.

Vestibule

• Cavity between labia minora

• Rich in blood vessels and nerve endings - sensitive to touch

List the name and function for #5

Perineum

• sensitive are between vagina/vulva and anus (also between genitals and anus in males)

• massaging area can enhance pleasure & orgasm

• supports urogenital muscles important in defecation

List the name and function for #6

Anus (female anatomy)

List the name and function for #7

Labia Majora

• Outer lips of the vulva

List the name and function for #8

Labia Minora

• Inner folds of the vulva - attached to clitoris

List the name and function for #9

Urethral Opening

List the name and function for #10

Introitus

• vaginal opening

  • covered by Hymen - tissue partially covering it

    • protects vaginal tissues early in life but no other functoin

      • rare cases - imperforate hymen completely covers opening

lis the name and function of #1

Seminal vesicle

• store/produce ~70& of fluid that makes up semen

  • It is Alkaline to help sperm survive linger & contains fructose & vitamins to nourish & provide energy for the sperm to propel themselves by flagella

• prior to seminal vesicles - sperm moves via tiny cilia in vas deferens

List the name and function of #2

Rectum

• final section of large intestine, terminating at the anus

List the name and function of #3

Ejaculatory duct

• two tubes that transport sperm from vas deferens and secretions from seminal vesicle to urethra during ejaculation

List the name and function of #4

Prostate gland

• doughnut shaped & walnut sized

• producs, alkaline with proteins, enzymes, and minerals to enchance mobility & survival of sperm

List the name and function of #5

Cowper’s gland

produce clear alkaline fluid & mucus to lunricate urethra prior to ejaculation - precum

• 2 pea sized glands

List the name and function of #6

Anus (male anatomy)

List the name and function of #7

Root of Penis

• Etensive network of muscles that control urination

List the name and function of #8

Epididymus

• Where spermatogenesis happens (sperm matures)

List. the name and function of #9

Testis

• Produces gametes and testosterone; suspended by spermatic cord

• Interstitial cells of leydig - cells within connective tissue spaces between tubules that synthesize and secrete testosterone and other androgens

List the name and the function of #10

Scrotum

• pouch of skin that holds the testicles

What structures are gained when spermatides become a sperm?

• Head

  • acrosome contains enzymes

• Body

  • Mitochondria provides energy needed by tail

• Tail (flagellum)

What is Spermatogenesis?

Sperm Production

How many chromosomes does a primary spermatocyte have?

46 chromosomes (in spermatogenesis) 

How many chromosomes does a secondary spermatocyte have? 

23

• After Meiosis II, spermatids and sperm also have 23 chromosomes

How many gametes are produced at a time in Spermatogenesis?

Hundreds of millions of sperm

How many gametes are produced at a time in Oogenesis?

One egg

Number of functional gametes from one stem cell in spermatogenesis? 

Four

Number of functional gametes from one stem cell in Ooogenesis? 

one

How many chromosomes do the Oogonium and primary oocyte have before meiosis during Oogenesis?

46 chromosomes

How many chromosomes does the secondary oocyte have after Meiosis in Oogenesis?

23 chromosomes

• After Meiosis II, Ootids and the Ovum also have 23 chromosomes

In Oogenesis, what is the smaller cell that degrades after Meiosis I and Meiosis II

Polar Bodies

• less cytoplasm makes this smaller cell degrade