language and society

variety

a label for any kind of language (a dialect, accent, or register)

variation

having more than one way of saying the same thing without it being ungrammatical

variable

a linguistic feature that can show up in different forms which can pattern with social factors

sociolinguistics

the study of how language and society shape each other

sociology of language

a macro view of how whole societies use, choose, and plan languages

macrolinguistics

looking at big groups, policies, and multilingual settings rather than individuals

microlinguistics

looking at face‑to‑face interactions and small‑scale variation in speech

communicative competence

knowing how to use language appropriately in a community, not just knowing grammar

features of communicative competence

knowledge of rules of speaking, when, where, how, and with whom to use particular forms

ethnosemantics

how a community’s vocabulary reflects its cultural categories and worldview

sociophonology

socially patterned sound differences in a language (who pronounces what, and how)

sociomorphology

socially patterned choices of morphological forms (who uses which endings or forms)

sociosyntax

socially patterned syntactic variation (who uses which grammatical constructions)

Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis

the idea that language influences how we habitually think and notice distinctions

semantic (linguistic) relativity

the view that different languages highlight different meanings and nudge different habitual thoughts

linguistic determinism

the strong claim that language strictly fixes and limits what we can think

speech community

a group defined by shared norms for using and evaluating language

community of practice

people bound together by doing something jointly and sharing ways of speaking around it

virtual community

a community built mainly through online interaction and shared digital practices

discourse community

a group with shared goals that uses specialised genres and language to reach them

social network

the web of relationships connecting individuals in a community

multiplex

tie a relationship where you know someone in more than one role (e.g. cousin and coworker)

uniplex

tie a relationship to someone in only one role (e.g. just colleagues)

tight knit network

a dense network where many members know each other, reinforcing local norms

loose-knit network

a sparser network where fewer ties overlap, often favouring change and innovation

language

a full communication system with its own structure and usually a writing system

dialect

a regional or social variety of a language with its own grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary

regiolect

a dialect linked mainly to a geographic region

sociolect

a dialect linked mainly to a social group or class

accent

a way of pronouncing a language, without necessarily changing grammar or vocabulary

abstand language

a language recognised because it is structurally very different from others

ausbau language

a language recognised because it has been socially and politically developed as a standard

standard language

a codified and socially accepted “model” variety used in education, media, and official life

features of Standard English

a relatively fixed, codified, high‑prestige variety often used in writing and formal settings (SE)

Language policy

conscious efforts to shape which languages or varieties are used, taught, and valued

Language planning

the broader ideological and political goals behind concrete language policy moves

Corpus planning

interventions that change the form of a language (orthography, grammar, vocabulary)

Status planning

interventions that change the functions and legal status of a language

Prestige planning

interventions that raise or manage the social prestige of particular codes

Acquisition planning

interventions that shape who learns which language, where, and how

Linguistic assimilation

the ideology that everyone in a polity should use a single dominant language

Linguistic pluralism

the ideology that multiple languages in a polity should be recognised and maintained

Vernacularisation

raising a local or vernacular variety into official or public functions

Internationalisation

promoting international languages for wider communication, often ex‑colonial languages

Societal bi-/multilingualism

a situation where a community uses more than one language with patterned role distribution

Territorial (horizontal) bilingualism

different areas of a country predominantly use different languages

Diagonal bilingualism

most people are bilingual, but in different language combinations across the territory

Vertical bilingualism

a bilingual setup linked to diglossia, with high and low varieties for different domains

Diglossia

a stable arrangement where a high (H) variety and a low (L) variety are used for different purposes

Triglossia

a stable arrangement involving three functionally separate codes, where each is used for different purposes

High (H) language

prestigious, often learned, codified variety used for formal and written domains

Low (L) language

the everyday, vernacular variety used in informal, intimate contexts

Cockney

a traditional working‑class London dialect with distinctive pronunciation and vocabulary

Received Pronunciation (RP)

a high‑prestige, standard British accent historically linked to education and power

Estuary English

a variety associated with southeast England that blends features of RP and local London speech

Dialectology

 the study and mapping of geographical dialect variation

Isogloss

a line on a map marking where one linguistic variant gives way to another

Dialect boundary

an area where several isoglosses cluster, indicating a sharper dialect division

Relic area

a region that preserves older linguistic features that have changed elsewhere

Focal area

a region from which innovations spread outward

Transition area

a zone where features from neighbouring dialects mix and overlap

NORM speaker type

Non‑mobile, Old, Rural, Male, used in traditional dialect surveys

Social dialectology

the study of systematic links between social factors and language variation

Sociolinguistic interview

a multi‑stage interview designed to elicit a range of speech styles

Participant observation

studying language by integrating into the community and observing naturally

Rapid anonymous response

quick, often one‑shot elicitation of target variables from strangers in public

Questionnaires

written or oral surveys used to gather language data and attitudes

Subjective reaction tests

techniques where listeners rate or react to speech to reveal attitudes and stereotypes

Teen talk

styles of speech typical of adolescents, often rich in slang and discourse markers

agelect (aetalect)

an age‑linked way of speaking (e.g. child‑directed talk or talk to seniors)

age grading

a pattern where people change their speech as they age, with each generation repeating the cycle

real time study

research that revisits the same community at different times to track change directly

apparent time study

research that compares different age groups at one moment to infer change in progress

discourse marker

a small word or phrase that organises talk, manages stance, or signals relationships (like “like”, “so”)

Discourse particle

a similar small element that shades meaning, politeness, or emotional stance

Genderlects

gender‑linked ways of speaking that can pattern differently across contexts

Deficit model

a view that women’s speech is “weaker” or lacking power compared to men’s

Dominance model

a view that gender differences in language reflect power inequalities

Difference model

a view that men and women use language as if from different subcultures with different norms

Dynamic/performative model

a view that gender is something people do in interaction, not just something they are

Slang

informal, often short‑lived vocabulary that marks in‑group identity

Argot

a specialised, often secret vocabulary used by a particular in‑group

Cant

a type of secret or semi‑secret language used by marginal or stigmatised groups

Jargon

specialised technical vocabulary used by a profession or activity community

Register

a configuration of language features tied to a particular situation or activity

Field (register)

what us going on; topic or type of an activity

Tenor (register)

who is involved and how they relate (power, distance, solidarity)

Mode (register)

the channel and role of language (spoken/written, prepared/spontaneous)

Genre

a recognisable text type with a typical purpose and structure (e.g. sermon, research article)

Style

intra‑speaker variation according to formality, audience, and context

Frozen style

very fixed, ritualised language (e.g. legal formulae, religious texts)

Formal style

carefully planned, monitored language for distant or official audiences

Consultative style

semi-formal, interactive style used with less familiar interlocutors

Casual style

relaxed, everyday style used with peers and friends

Intimate style

highly personal style used with very close relations

Speech

language that is time‑bound, real‑time, and heavily supported by context and prosody

Writing

language that is space‑bound, planned, and typically more explicit and dense

Intertextuality

how a text echoes, quotes, or positions itself in relation to other texts

Mash‑up

a new text created by combining recognisable chunks from existing texts

Remix

a reworked version of existing material that rearranges or reframes it