general psychology final

consciousness

the awareness of internal and external stimuli

• awareness of:

  • external events

  • internal sensations

  • the self as a unique being experiencing these events

  • your thoughts about the experiences

what are (freud’s) three levels of consciousness?

• conscious

• preconscious

• unconscious

conscious

we are presently aware of

preconscious

we are not presently aware of, but can gain access to

unconscious

we cannot become aware of

what are the (cognitive) levels of consciousness?

• higher-level consciousness

• lower-level consciousness

higher-consciousness

• controlled processes

• actively focus efforts towards a goal

• requires attention

• ex. taking an exam, or learning how to drive a stick-shift car

lower-level consciousness

• automatic processes

• daydreaming

• ex. typing on a keyboard without looking at your fingers, or "zoning out" while driving home on a route you've taken a thousand times

mere-exposure effect

people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they’re familiar with them

priming

exposure to one stimulus influences a response to another stimulus

the dual track theory

not having to think about everything we do all at once

• conscious “high” track

• unconscious “low” track

conscious “high” track

our minds take deliberate action

• ex. deliberately thinking: “i saw a bird!”

unconscious “low” track

our minds perform automatic actions

• instant and automatic calculations of the object's color, motion, form, and depth to understand exactly how fast and where it is moving

consequences of the dual-track theory

• selective attention

• selective inattention

selective attention

our brain is able to choose a focus and select what to notice

• cocktail party effect

selective inattention

failure to notice a part of our environment when our attention is directed elsewhere

• inattentional blindness

inattentional blindness

we miss seeing what others may think is obvious to see

what do different EEG patterns mean?

different states of consciousness

• beta = highly alert

• alpha = relaxed

• theta = drowsy

• delta = deep sleep

sleep

altered consciousness, relatively inhibited sensory activity, and inhibition of nearly all voluntary muscles

why do we sleep?

• protection

• restores and repairs

• strengthens memories

• facilitates problem solving

• growth hormones

how much sleep do we need?

• the older we get, the less sleep we need

• it can be genetically predisposed

• habits, responsibilities, stressors

• lowest mortality rate associated with 7 hours of sleep

sleep stages

distinct patterns of brain waves and muscle activity that are associated with different types of consciousness and sleep

awake and relaxed

alpha waves

falling asleep

• yawning → creates a brief boost in alertness as brain metabolism is slowing down

• breathing slows down

• brain waves become slower and more irregular (alpha → theta)

NREM stage 1

• light sleep, theta waves

• muscles are active, eye roll slowly

• only lasts a few minutes

NREM stage 2

• clearly asleep

• sleep spindles

  • short bursts of rapid brainwaves

NREM stages 3 & 4

• slow-wave sleep (SWS)

• delta waves

• restoring body’s growth hormones

REM sleep

• 20-25% of total sleep time

• dreaming occurs

• involves rapid eye movements, high-frequency brain waves, increased pulse and breathing

other animals’ sleep

• nearly all mammals and birds exhibit REM sleep

  • exceptions: dolphins and some whales

  • mammals born with well-developed regulatory systems → less REM sleep

sleep deprivation

the condition of not having enough sleep

• either chronic or acute

• effects:

  • health problems

  • impaired cognitive function and motor skills

  • accidents

sleep hygiene

• avoid napping

• eat earlier; drink less alcohol and caffeine

• exercise (late afternoon best)

• establish a regular relaxing bedtime routine

• associate bed with sleep

• seek assistance

learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior or mental state based on experience

types of learning

• classical conditioning

• operant conditioning

• observational learning

pavlov’s classical conditioning

learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (NS) + unconditioned stimulus (US) → conditioned response (CR)

• learning through association of stimuli

  • repeated exposure to two stimuli occurring in sequence → associate the stimuli with each other

    • then, natural response can now be triggered by the new stimulus

• ex. dogs being conditioned to salivate when hearing a bell

elements of classical conditioning

NS → NR

US → UR

NS + US → UR

CS → CR

NS = CS

UR = CR

acquisition (classical conditioning)

the initial stage of learning a new response tendency

• depends on stimulus contiguity

• the association between NS and US gets acquired

• acquisition has occurred if the UR is triggered by a CS

extinction (classical conditioning)

the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency

• if the US stops appearing with the CS, the CR decreases

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance of an extinguished response after aperiod of non-exposure to the conditioned stimulus

factors affecting classical conditioning

• relationship in time: contiguity

  • NS/CS should precede the US

• consistency and reliability

  • NC/CS should reliably predict the onset of the US

• best results if CS comes a little bit before the US

stimulus generalization

the tendency to have conditioned responses triggered by related stimuli

• John Watson’s Little Albert study

  • generalization of the fear of rates to other soft and furry things

stimulus discrimination

the learned ability to only respond to a specific stimulus, preventing generalization

higher-order conditioning

when an established CS is paired with a new neutral stimulus, turning the new stimulus into a secondary, weaker CS.

operant conditioning

• B.F. Skinner

• learning from the consequences of behavior

  • learns to do more of what works and less of what doesn’t

• a response is followed by a reward or punitive feedback

  • reinforced behavior increases

  • punished behavior decreases

Skinner box

a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded

• consequences of the response are controlled

acquisition (operant conditioning)

conditioning of a response

• behavior increases because it is reinforced

• shaping: involves the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response

extinction (operant conditioning)

the association between response and contingency is broken

extinction burst (operant conditioning)

temporary increase in behavior in the absence of the reinforcer

continuous reinforcement

• giving a reward after the target action every single time

• desired behavior acquired quickly

partial / intermittent reinforcement

• giving rewards part of the time

• takes longer to be acquired, but persists longer without reward

partial reinforcement interval schedules

• based on the amount of time between reinforcements

• can be fixed or variable

partial reinforcement ratio schedules

• based on the number of responses before a reinforcement is administered

• can be fixed or variable

effectiveness of partial reinforcement schedules

variable ration > fixed ratio > variable interval > fixed interval

reinforcement

any feedback from the environment that makes a behavior more likely to occur

positive reinforcement

adding something desirable to increase a behavior

negative reinforcement

subtracting something undesirable to increase a behavior

punishment

any condition that follows and reduces the liklihood of a behavior

positive punishment

adding something unpleasant to decrease behavior

negative punishment

subtracting something pleasant to decrease behavior

conditioning in everyday life

• parenting

• self-improvement

• superstitious behavior

observational learning

response is influenced by the observation of others

social learning theory (observational learning)

• Bandura

• learning can occur without obvious change in behavior

• acknowledges role of cognition in learning process

Bobo Doll Study

children who watched an adult be aggressive toward an inflatable doll were more likely to be aggressive to the doll

4 steps to modeling

1. attention: noticing the behavior

2. retention: storing the behavior in memory

3. reproduction of behavior: physically / psychologically performing the behavior

4. motivation: having a desire or incentive to repeat the behavior

prosocial behavior

actions which benefit others, contribute value to groups, and follow moral codes and social norms

antisocial behavior

actions that are harmful to individuals and society