Human bio exam

🗂️ Deck 1: Cells, Transport, & Enzymes

Structural Hierarchy of the Body

The organization of biological structures within the human body, which follows this sequence: Cells → Tissues → Organs → Systems → Organism. This hierarchy illustrates how complex structures are formed by simpler ones.

Rule of Biological Organization

Cells build tissues, tissues build organs, organs build systems, and systems build the organism, emphasizing the interconnectedness of biological structures.

Mitochondria & Ribosomes (Functions)

Mitochondria are organelles that serve as the site of aerobic cellular respiration, generating chemical energy in the form of ATP. Ribosomes are cellular structures where protein synthesis occurs, crucial for cellular growth and repair.

Golgi Body & Cell Membrane (Functions)

The Golgi Body modifies, sorts, packages, and secretes materials out of the cell via vesicles, functioning like a post office for molecules. The Cell Membrane is a semi-permeable outer barrier that regulates the movement of substances entering and exiting the cell.

Passive Transport (3 Types)

Passive transport involves the movement of substances across cell membranes without the use of energy, occurring down a concentration gradient.

1. Simple Diffusion

A process where small particles move directly through the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane, from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

2. Facilitated Diffusion

A type of passive transport where larger or charged particles move through specialized protein channels embedded in the cell membrane.

3. Osmosis

The diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration, essential for maintaining cellular balance.

Active & Vesicular Transport

Active transport is the movement of substances against their concentration gradient, requiring ATP energy. Vesicular transport involves membrane-bound sacs (vesicles) to transport materials into (endocytosis) or out of (exocytosis) the cell.

Lock-and-Key Model of Enzymes

This model describes how an enzyme's active site (the lock) has a specific shape that fits a particular substrate (the key), allowing the enzyme to catalyze a chemical reaction.

Action of Enzymes

When enzymes bind to their substrates, they form an enzyme-substrate complex, lowering the activation energy needed for a reaction to occur.

Enzyme Denaturation (Temp & pH)

Denaturation occurs when extreme heat or incorrect pH levels disrupt the chemical bonds that maintain an enzyme's structure, altering its shape.

Effect of Denaturation

As a result of denaturation, the active site of the enzyme changes shape permanently, preventing the substrate from binding and halting the chemical reaction.

🗂️ Deck 2: Respiration, Gas Exchange, & Digestion

Cellular Respiration Equations

The process through which cells convert glucose and oxygen into carbon dioxide, water, and energy (ATP) is represented by the equation: Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP).

Chemical Equation for Cellular Respiration

The detailed chemical formula is: $C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 → 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + 36–38 \text{ ATP}$, showing the transformation of glucose into ATP.

Mechanics of Inhaling (Inspiration)

Inspiration involves contraction of the intercostal muscles, which raises the ribcage, and contraction of the diaphragm, which moves downward, increasing chest volume and causing air to rush into the lungs.

Mechanics of Exhaling (Expiration)

Expiration is achieved by relaxing the intercostal muscles (lowering the ribcage) and the diaphragm (moving upwards), which decreases chest volume and forces air out of the lungs.

Alveoli Gas Exchange

Gas exchange occurs in the alveoli, where oxygen diffuses from the alveoli (high concentration) into the blood (low concentration), and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood (high concentration) into the alveoli (low concentration) for exhalation.

Villi Absorption Features

Villi in the small intestine maximize absorption surface area for nutrients; they include microvilli, which further enhance surface area, and a thin epithelial cell wall facilitating rapid diffusion.

Core Digestive Enzymes

Digestive enzymes are crucial for breaking down food: Amylase converts starches into simple sugars, Protease/Pepsin cleaves proteins into amino acids, and Lipase breaks down dietary fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

🗂️ Deck 3: Reproduction & Early Development

Male Reproductive Anatomy

The male reproductive system includes the testes, which produce sperm cells and testosterone; the scrotum, maintaining temperature; the epididymis, where sperm matures; and the vas deferens, the conduit for sperm transportation.

Female Reproductive Anatomy

The female reproductive system comprises the ovaries (produce ova and hormones), fallopian tubes (where fertilization occurs), and the uterus (where a fetus develops during pregnancy).

Early Development Sequence

The sequence of early embryonic development begins with: 1. Fertilization, where sperm and egg unite; 2. Morula, a solid ball of cells; 3. Blastocyst, a hollow ball with an inner cell mass; 4. Implantation, where the blastocyst embeds into the uterine lining.

Placenta Functions

The placenta provides essential nutrient and oxygen delivery from the mother's blood to the fetus, removes waste, and secretes hormones crucial for maintaining pregnancy without mixing maternal and fetal blood.

🗂️ Deck 4: Division, Genetics, & Pedigrees

Mitosis vs. Meiosis

Mitosis involves one cell division resulting in two genetically identical diploid cells for growth and repair, while meiosis includes two sequential divisions leading to four genetically unique haploid gametes for reproduction.

Mitosis Phases (PMAT)

The stages of mitosis: Prophase (chromosomes condense and nuclear membrane breaks down), Metaphase (chromosomes align in the cell's center), Anaphase (sister chromatids are separated), and Telophase (nuclear membranes reform around chromosomes).

Gene vs. Allele

A gene is a segment of DNA on a chromosome that codes for a specific protein or trait, while an allele is a variation of that gene, such as different forms of eye color.

Genotype vs. Phenotype

Genotype refers to the specific genetic makeup composed of alleles (e.g., Bb), while phenotype describes the observable traits or characteristics that result from that genetic makeup (e.g., brown eyes).

Homozygous vs. Heterozygous

Homozygous describes an individual with two identical alleles for a gene (e.g., AA or aa), while heterozygous means having two different alleles for the same gene (e.g., Aa).

Dominant vs. Recessive

A dominant allele expresses its trait even in the presence of another allele (A), while a recessive allele is only expressed when two copies are present (aa), thus masked by the dominant form.

Autosomal vs. Sex-Linked Pedigrees

Autosomal traits are expressed equally in both genders, while sex-linked traits (especially X-linked) often appear more frequently in males, particularly when an affected mother passes the trait to her sons.