Learning objectives

Deductive Reasoning

A top-down approach moving from general rules to a specific conclusion.

Inductive Reasoning

A bottom-up approach deriving broad generalizations from specific observations.

Abductive Reasoning

Inferring the most likely or best explanation from incomplete data.

Scientific Bias

Systematic error or subjectivity that skews results away from the truth.

Species Problem

The scientific difficulty of defining a universal concept of what constitutes a species.

Biological Species Concept

Defines species based on interbreeding and reproductive isolation.

Morphological Species Concept

Classifies species based on observable physical and structural similarities.

Phylogenetic Species Concept

Defines species as the smallest monophyletic group sharing a common ancestor.

Hardy-Weinberg Principle

States that allele frequencies remain constant in a population absent evolutionary forces.

Genetic Drift

Random, chance fluctuations in allele frequencies over generations.

Gene Flow

Transfer of alleles between populations through migration and interbreeding.

Natural Selection

Differential reproductive success of individuals based on heritable traits.

Phylogenetics

The study of evolutionary history and relationships among organisms.

Taxonomy

The scientific discipline of naming, defining, and classifying organisms.

Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA)

The hypothetical single ancestral origin of all current life on Earth.

Monophyletic Group (Clade)

An ancestor and all of its evolutionary descendants.

Paraphyletic Group

An ancestor and some, but not all, of its descendants.

Polyphyletic Group

Taxa grouped together without including their most recent common ancestor.

Homology

Shared traits resulting from common ancestry.

Analogy (Homoplasy)

Similar traits that evolved independently due to similar selective pressures.

Abiogenesis

The natural process by which life arose from non-living organic compounds.

Miller-Urey Experiment

Demonstrated that essential organic molecules can spontaneously form under prebiotic conditions.

Protocell

An abiotic, membrane-bound droplet considered a precursor to modern living cells.

Endosymbiotic Theory

Proposes that eukaryotic organelles evolved from engulfed, free-living prokaryotes.

Biodiversity Hotspot

A region with high endemic species richness that is threatened by habitat destruction.

Shannon Diversity Index

A formula measuring biodiversity based on species richness and relative abundance.

Simpson Diversity Index

A metric measuring the probability that two randomly chosen individuals belong to different species.

Falsifiability

The requirement that a scientific hypothesis can be tested and potentially proven false.

Repeatability

The ability of an experiment to yield identical results when replicated under the same conditions.