Learning objectives

1)  Explain what science is and its role in human thought 

  • Science is a way of studying life and what is around us. In human thought, it helps us understand the world and use scientific methodologies.

2) Describe and explain the three different ways of scientific reasoning: Deduction, Induction, and Abduction

  • Deduction: General principles → specific conclusions.

  • Induction: specific examples → generalizations

  • Abduction: Finding the most likely scenario given the information presented.

3) Distinguish and apply those modes of reasoning in a scientific investigation

  • Deduction: General principles → specific conclusions. Can be used to formulate a specific and testable prediction from a bigger hypothesis. Can be important for falsification because if deduction prediction fails in an experiment, it can be refuted.

  • Induction: Specific examples to make generalizations. Can be used in initial research to develop hypotheses. Can help identify trends to make a generalization. Usually more probabilistic rather than a guarantee though.

  • Abduction: Finds the most likely hypothesis from unexplained observations. Gets falsifiable and testable predictions from that hypothesis to make an experiment. Can help with getting that data into broader scientific theories.

4) Recognize valid scientific questions in different areas of knowledge 

  • Needs either a why, how or what

5) Identify and explain the nature and sources of error in experiments  

  • Error can come from random which affects precision. Usually from either the observer’s judgement or unpredictable fluctuations.

  • Systemic error: Consistent and repeatable errors- affects accuracy. The whole experiment must be restarted.

6) Distinguish between Accuracy and Precision and the implications of those qualities in science

  • Accuracy: How close to the truth/correct answer

  • Precision: Spread of values. How close together your values or measures are.

7) Develop basic proficiency in the usage of spreadsheets to do basic statistical calculations 

8) Explain what biases are and how they can mislead your thinking on a scientific pursuit

  • Biases in science are things that can impact scientific experiments. Scientific concepts are an example because they all have biases on what defines a species. They can mislead the accuracy of a scientific experiment because it is hard to tell whether it is fully true or correct.

9)  Explain why "life" is a difficult concept to determine 

  • There are so many different methodologies and concepts to describe life. And while one, such as organization may determine something is “alive”, another feature of life may not apply.

10) Describe and explain the characteristics of life as used in Science

  • Order/organization

  • Reproduction/replication

  • Regulation

  • Sensitivity

  • Evolution/adaptation

  • Growth/development

  • Energy process

11) Distinguish between living and nonliving things according to science

  • Living: Has the characteristics of life- at least one.

  • Non-living: Unable to reproduce or metabolize, no needs, etc. - Doesn’t have the characteristics of life.

12) Defend a position on a two-sided matter using reputable sources and evidence-based arguments

13) Explain the "species problem" and its effects on biodiversity understanding

  • The species problem is an issue in science where scientists cannot decide on a definition for life. Its effects on biodiversity are scientists and individuals not having

14) Describe the different species concepts

  • Biological species concept: Living organisms can reproduce with others who are also the same organism, but cannot interbreed with other organisms.

  • Morphological species concept: Species are organisms with same structures or physical traits

  • Phylogenetics species concept: Smallest group of organisms on the tree with at least one diagnostic character

  • Genetic species concept: Species are organisms that share a large amount of DNA (98% or more)

  • Ecological species concept: Species who share and have same ecological niche (like resources or environment)

15) Analyze and evaluate different species concepts, pointing out their strengths and weaknesses

  • Biological: Strengths → Focuses on gene flow and how distinct populations diverge over time. Doesn’t focus on things like physical appearance. Weaknesses → asexual beings, not always straightforward- some can interbreed, there are hybrid species from hybridization

  • Morphological: Strengths→ Easy to use because it uses physical features to define, good for fossils. Weaknesses→ outliers, sibling species (ones that look alike, but have no gene exchange) or infraspecific variation (so different but they live in same area and interbreed)

  • Phylogenetic: Strengths → Can be applied to both asexual and sexual beings. Weaknesses → are differences really relevant?

  • Genetic: Strengths→ Definability based on distinct genetics. Weaknesses → who decides the 98%? Random percentage.

16) Define the Hardy-Weinberg principle and discuss its importance (Readings)

17) Explain the four main processes that lead to Evolution: Gene drift; Gene Flow/ migration; Mutations; and Natural Selection (Readings)

  • Gene drift: Random changes in alleles in genetics which leads to genetics changing in populations.

  • Gene flow: The transfer of genetic material between populations. A species will physically move and interbreed with another population which leads to exchanges in genetic material (alleles)

  • Natural selection: The best traits stay to fit for given environment. If a trait doesn’t work for given environment, organisms will keep and use the traits that do work. These traits will get passed down by generations so future generations will only have the best traits to survive.

  • Mutations: Random changes in DNA code that causes new traits to appear in organisms.

18) Distinguish between the main branches of systematics: phylogenetics and taxonomy

19) Describe and explain the main elements of a phylogenetic tree and how to extract information from it

20) Explain the LUCA concept and the evidence that supports it.

21) Differentiate between monophyletic, paraphyletic, and polyphyletic groups; homology and analogy; convergence and divergence

22) Explain the Linnaean classification system, connect it to the modern understanding of evolution, discuss its importance, and be able to criticize grouping as being modern or not. 

23) Explain how systematics are scientific endeavors and how repeatability and falsifiability are possible on phylogenies and taxonomic hypotheses. 

24) Describe the elements of life and where and how they were present on Early Earth

25) Explain what abiogenesis means in scientific terms and differentiate it from non-scientific uses

26) Explain the different hypotheses for the origin of life, their strengths, and their gaps

27) Explain the importance of the Miller-Urey experiment.

28) Follow the chronological steps and explain the challenges of life from inorganic compounds to the first protocells. 

29) Describe the characteristics of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, differentiate between them, and explain the evolutionary significance of those characteristics 

30) Differentiate between the two major Endosymbiotic theories (Symbiogenesis and Inside-Out hypotheses), their strengths, and gaps.

31) Identify the major steps in the evolution of life on Earth;  organize them in chronological order and demonstrate how each step depended on the previous.

32) Summarize the major extinction events, identify commonalities amongst them, and correlate them to our present situation

33) Define the meaning of biodiversity, distinguish the possible ways of thinking about biodiversity, and criticize the problems of using species as the functional unit of biodiversity measures

34) Explain the concept of hotspots and the factors that regulate diversity

  • Hotspots are areas with organisms/species endemic to an area- they often have threats from human activity because they are specialized species who need a specific environment to thrive. There are negative regulators like deforestation, climate change, invasive species that can impact how these species survive.

35) Cite and explain the key concepts of diversity and distinguish between them

  • Abundance: Total number of organisms in a given area.

  • Evenness: How close in number species are in a given area.

  • Richness: Total number of species in a given area.

36) Calculate the Shannon and the Simpson indices and critically evaluate their strengths and limitations

37) Argue about the importance and value of biodiversity

38) Reflect on the main threats to biodiversity and devise solutions to the biodiversity crisis

39) Identify the main steps of the process of designing an experiment

40) Explain the terms involved in an experiment such as: control, variables, etc.

41) Based on a question, propose a scientific hypothesis 

42) Design an experiment that can test a hypothesis, obeying the principles of scientific methodology (falsifiability and repeatability)