Psychology AQA GCSE PAPER 2

Learning

using new knowledge and information to change our behaviour

Classical conditioning

suggests learning happens via association involves a person or animal learning to associate a reflex response with a new stimulus

Spontaneous recovery

conditioned response disappeared suddenly appears

Generalisation

conditioned response produced when a similar stimulus is presented eg changed tone of bell

Discrimination

conditioned response only produced when a specific stimulus is presented

Pavlov's Dogs

First experiment that created and demonstrate the theory of classical conditioning giving food and ringing bell dog salivated

Watson and Rayner

Aim- see emotional response of fear could be conditioned in human

Method- Albert 11 months old liked white lab rat when reached for it bar was hit with hammer Albert cried

Result- when rat presented again tried to get away and screamed and scared of santa mask

Conc- fear responses can be conditioned and learnt through classical conditioning in children

Eval- ethical issues trauma

Operant conditioning

Learning because of consequences of behaviour

Positive reinforcement

Showing desired behaviour gains a reward so it will be repeated

Negative reinforcement

Something negative taken away because desired behaviour produced, likely to repeat behaviour, eg detention taken away for handing in homework

Punishment

Stimulus that weakens behaviour, pleasant thing taken away or something unpleasant added because of undesired behaviour

Thorndike

Placed cat in puzzle box string hanging from roof if cat pulled box would open, consequence cat escaping, 20 trials got faster, pleasant exit and food outside encouraged

Eval- animal ethical issues can't generalise to humans, no consent, stress

Law of effect

Behaviours that are rewarded are repeated and punished avoided

Behaviour shaping

Changing behaviour in small steps

Skinner

Rat food electric field lever pulled. Positive reinforcement getting food, negative reinforcement getting rid of electric field

Fear

An unpleasant emotion caused by pain, danger, harm

Phobia

Irrational fear

Flooding

Treatment for phobia. Phobic starts at deep end being exposed to stimulus ethical issue unable to leave room stressful

Systematic desensitisation

Treatment for phobia. Phobic relaxed when exposed to fear less ethical issues and have right to withdraw. Phobic systematically gradually exposed to conquer hierarchy fear takes lots of sessions is expensive can leave so is not always effective

Aversion therapy

Treatment for addiction drugs alcohol dependency which makes the addict have a negative reaction to the addictive substance adding eg emetics causing vomit

- unpleasant, likely to return to addiction

Token economy

Programme where primary and secondary reinforcers are used to increase desired behaviour

Eg hospitals use programmes to reward people for good health behaviour can be used to pay for luxury items

+ improves behaviour

- focus on reward, ethical issue not being able to do certain things because lack of tokens causes stress

Primary reinforcer

Reward such as food or water used to survive

Secondary reinforcer

Reward money/token can exchange for primary reinforcer

Conformity

change in a persons behaviour or opinions as the result of group pressure

Social influence

effect of other people on behaviour includes conformity obedience and social loafing

Sherif

Aim- discover effect on judgment of listening to other people

Method- estimate how far spot of light moved optical illusion auto kinetic effect

Result- variety of estimates individually group estimates closer

Conc- people use other people's opinions to help judge in an ambiguous situation

Eval- deceived

Reasons for conformity

Need to be right so look to others for acceptance in ambiguous situations

Need to be liked and accepted so say/ do things popular with group

Factors that affect conformity

Difficulty, group size, unanimity

Asch

Aim- wanted to know if people were influenced by other people's opinions even if they knew they were wrong

Method- 4 lines test line and asked which was same length as test line tested alone gave correct answer in group gave wrong same answer as confederate

Result- 32% group wrong answer

Conc- 32% error was hearing incorrect answer knew wrong didn't want to go against group

Eval- deception confederate

Evaluation of conformity

Artificial situation, ambiguous situation did not demonstrate conformity, lab experiment, not ethical deceived confused

Obedience

Following orders of someone you believe has authority

Milgram

Aim- see how far people obey unreasonable order

Method- 41 males thought taking part in experiment about learning and memory made to believe giving learners shocks when wrong answer 15-450 volts

Result- participants distressed 3 seizures all delivered over 300 volts and 65% went to 450

Conc- people are prepared to obey orders if they think the person is of authority

Eval- ethical issues distress, buffer was a wall, not feeling responsible, gradual commitment realised shock was fake

Reasons for obedience

Socialisation, legitimate authority, gradual commitment, buffers, not feeling responsible

Bickman

Aim- see if people more likely to obey uniform

Method- actor security/casual in car park to pick up litter

Res- 80% obey guard only 40% when casual

Conc- wearing uniform increases sense that person is authoritative figure

Eval- deception confederate field experiment so it has ecological validity, legitimate authority of uniform

Hofling

Aim- see if people follow unreasonable orders in work

Method- contacted 22 nurses by phone claimed to be doctor and told to give patient twice dose of Astrofen drug

Res- 21 we're prepared to follow despite max dosage being on bottle

Conc- nurses likely to obey instruction of doctor even when there may be bad consequences for patient

Eval- buffer telephone, less realistic not allowed to discuss, not real drug, confederates deception

Deindividuation

State of losing sense of individuality becoming less aware of our own responsibility for actions

Zimbardo

Aim- see if people in big city more antisocial than small town

Method- parked car with bonnet up as if broken down observed people passing

Result- in big city new york stealing parts in small town palto alto lowered bonnet when raining so engine wouldn't get wet

Conc- deindividuation caused by living in big city will increase anti social behaviour

Eval- did not get consent to be observed

Zimbardo

Aim- effect hiding identity on size of electric shock they will give

Meth- female uni students group 1 played teacher in lab coat that covered face group 2 in own clothes with name badges

Res- shocks from group 1 twice as great

Conc- being able to hide identity leads to behaving crueller less likely consequences

Eval- lacked ecological validity not normal task, ethical deception psychological harm

Social loafing

putting less effort into doing something when with others doing same thing

Latane

Aim- see being grouped effected effort

Meth- 84 participants shout and clap alone and in group of 6 wore headphones

Res- larger group made less noise

Conc- less effort to task when others are contributing

Eval- from same culture

Earley

Aim- see culture makes difference to social loafing

Meth- US China tasks alone and in group measured effort

Result- American reduced effort in group China did not

Conc- social loafing does not exist in all cultures some are prepared to work just as hard for the good of the group when they don't need to

Factors affecting social loafing

size of group, nature of task, culture you are in

Bystander intervention

the act of helping strangers in an emergency situation

Diffusion of responsibility

In a group less need for individual to act because someone else could help

Kitty Genovese

1964 woman attacked New York 30 mind killed, after someone called police neighbours interviewed 38 said what happened and gave description means anyone could have prevented death

Eval- nobody knew whether somebody else called police

Latane and Darley

Aim- see if less likely to react to emergency when others present

Meth- sit in room in 3s or alone doing questionnaire smoke comes in room

Res- 75% alone told someone 38% in group told someone

Conc- people around less likely to react to emergency

Eval- diffusion of responsibility because when alone nobody to help you, realised it wasn't real

Altruism

helping someone without thinking of yourself

Bystander apathy

doing nothing in an emergency when someone needs help

Piliavin

Aim- appearance of victim influence helping

Method- actor collapsed on train appearance changed each time

Res- walking stick 90% in 70 seconds ugly scar 60% drunk 20%

Conc- appearance of person needing help effect how quickly they are helped

Eval- characteristics could impact help

Practical implication of conformity

Jury service

Practical implication of obedience

Space shuttle allowed to explode even though it could of been prevented engineers knew it would break but were persuaded not to say anything by authority

Practical implication of deindividuation

School uniform makes kids easier to control more likely to follow rules

Practical implication of social loafing

Team presentations

Practical implication of bystander intervention

1993 James Bulger abducted by 2 boys and murdered many watched him screaming and crying for mum

Bateson

Aim- similarity of victim/bystander will affect help

Meth- woman thought to be electric shocked participant make to think like/not like themselves given opportunity to take her place

Res- more prepared to take her place when similar

Conc- we are more likely to help someone we can relate to more empathy and causes us more distress to watch

Eval- unethical deceived

Schroeder

Aim- reasons for bystanders not helping

Meth- studied findings from research

Result- provided explanation why bystanders did nothing

Conc- bystanders distressed for victim but believed others were more capable of helping

Sex identity

determined by biological factors such as chromosomes and hormones

Gender identity

refers to child's attitudes and behaviours determines if a child's gender identity is masculine or feminine

Theories of gender development

Psychodynamic theory, social learning theory and gender scheme theory

Psychodynamic theory of gender development

Freud beloved mind was in three, conscious, preconscious and unconscious, believed in unconscious there were feelings we are not aware of

Said gender development is 3-5 during phallic stage when a child unconsciously sexually desires opposite sex parent is jealous of same sex parent, adopts behaviour of same sex parent this is called identification

Oedipus complex

During phallic stage Freud said boys unconsciously desire mothers and jealous of fathers, scared of father and believe he will castrate, boys give up feelings and identify with father

Freud

Aim- investigate little hans phobia

Method- Hans father wrote to Freud at 4 he had a fear of horses and was frightened that the horse would bite him or fall down, white horses black mouths

Result- said he unconsciously sexually desired mother saw father as rival, biting castration, dark mouth is beard, falling is desire to see father dead

Conc- supports oedipus complex

Electra complex

Freud believed in phallic stage girls unconsciously desire father and jealous of mum and girls had already been castrated so fear is not as intense girls identify with mother

Gender development one parent

One parent households poorly developed gender identity and will not experience oedipus or electra complex, claimed boys without dads had gender identity problems

Evaluation of psychodynamic theory of gender development

Based on unconscious feelings can't be tested, lack of evidence, study hans can't be generalised, wide range of people who influence child gender development eg media

Gender schema theory of gender development

Gender schemas are building blocks of information, strengthened by interaction with the world about gender, such as clothing, often made up with stereotypes

Martin

Aim- show kids understanding of gender becomes less stereotyped and more flexible as get older

Meth- heard stories about toys male/female characters liked, some described to like gender stereotyped/ non activities children asked to predict toys the character would or would not like

Res- younger only used sex eg said trucks even if the boy had said he liked dolls older considered sex and other toys they liked said girls who liked trucks didn't like dolls

Conc- older kids more flexible view on gender

Levy and Carter

Aim- show individual differences in way kids think about gender

Meth- kids shown pics of toys choose one sometimes both stereotypically masculine/ feminine some times one masculine one feminine

Result- highly gender schematised kids chose quickly between one masc and one fem but if shown two masc or fem toys took longer because wanted both or neither, less gender schematised chose on personal preference and took same amount of time on each set of pics

Conc- highly gender schematised children choose toys based on whether they are appropriate for their sex less gender schematised used personal preference

Evaluation of gender scheme theory of gender development

Well supported by research that older kids are more flexible, doesn't explain why some are more highly gender schematised than others, doesn't explain why gender develops at 2, cannot explain same sex friends and gender stereotyping toys before they are aware of their own sex and gender

Aggression

Behaviour aimed at harming others

Hormones

Chemicals released by our endocrine system effect body functions and behaviour

Limbic system

Apart of brain causes aggressive behaviour

Thanatos

Part of unconscious that causes aggressive drive

Vicarious learning

learning by observation

Monitoring

judging whether or not our behaviour is appropriate

Punishment

stimulus weakens behaviour because it is negative and avoided

Social theory aggression

Implication of kids copying punishment eg child hit by parent learns to hit others, violent video games, violent role models

Biological theory aggression

prefrontal cortex limbic system brain disease chromosomal abnormalities

Psychodynamic theory aggression

caused by thanatos protect using ego defence mechanism

Young (Biological)

Aim- hormones affect aggressive behaviour

Meth- injected pregnant monkeys with testosterone observed

Res- grew up like males challenged for dominance play fights

Conc- testosterone causes aggression

Eval- can generalise to humans ethical issues no consent

Raine (Biological)

Aim- examine brains of murders

Meth- 41 murders PET scan compared to non murders

Res- activity in prefrontal cortex lower in murders

Conc- prefrontal cortex not working leads to crime

Barker (biological)

Aim- see effect of frustration in aggressive behaviour

Meth- children wait to play with toys observed

Res- aggressive destructive compared to kids not waiting

Conc- frustration leads to aggression

Eval- cannot standardise frustration

Megargee and Mendelson (biological)

Aim- link aggression and personality type

Meth- people who committed crimes interviewed personality tests

Res- over controlled repressed anger built up exploding at something small

Conc- if people don't show aggression in small amounts it will become uncontrollable

Eval- lies and lab study

Charles Whitman (biological)

Climbed up clock tower texas 1966 killed 12 people with rifle and mother left letter for brain to be analysed found tumour pressing on limbic system

Bandura (social)

Aim- 3-6 yr old intimidate aggressive behaviour on bobo doll

Meth- 96 kids 4 groups shown someone throw kick punch behaviour observed

Res- kids who saw showed more aggression

Conc- children copy others behaviour

Eval- not normal environment

Liebert and Baron (social)

Aim- violent tv effect aggressive behaviour in kids

Meth- group shown violent tv other group shown sports

Res- watched tv more aggressive

Conc- tv violence increases violent behaviour

Eval- also evidence that observing violence doesn't cause it

Charlton (social)

Aim- introduced tv see if it made kids violent

Meth- 2 years island st helena got tv

Res- no increase in aggression

Conc- watching is not enough to make kids copy aggression

Eval- high ecological validity 2 years natural surroundings

Biological methods reducing aggression

drugs treat adhd, Ritalin stimulates brain activity reduces aggression when prefrontal cortex can work, psychosurgery removing bits of brain that don't function

Psychodynamic methods reducing aggression

Catharsis (getting rid of emotion by watching others experience it)

Social learning methods reducing aggression

less aggressive role models

Bandura (biological reducing aggression)

Aim- observing role model being punished reduces aggression being copied by kids

Meth- kids shown punished adult for acting aggressively

Res- kids saw punishment less aggressive than others

Conc- sees aggression punished wouldn't copy

Huesmann (biological reducing aggression)

Aim- teach kids think carefully about what they see to reduce aggression

Meth- group taught tv not real, people use non violence to solve problems

Res- trained kids showed less aggression

Conc- aggression can be reduced by making kids think about how they behave and make role models less influential

Eval- parents have difficulty explaining

Displacement ego defence mechanism

being aggressive to others

Sublimation ego defence mechanism

channeling anger into good sports