EDHD 460 2nd Half of Semester

In preparation for Final Exam

Cognitive learning processes

how information is received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind. (e.g., social cognitive theories, information processing theories, metacognition, conceptual learning, reasoning/thinking, and problem solving/creativity)

Metacognition

Cognition about cognition, deliberate conscious control of cognitive activity, people’s awareness of their own cognitive processes

• Helps us understand WHY phases of information processing theory occur

• Flavell: jumpstarted research abt metacognition

Declarative knowledge

factual information (knowing THAT something occurred, e.g., facts, historical dates)

Procedural knowledge

knowing HOW something occurs (reading strategies, goal settings, math algorithms)

Conditional knowledge

Knowing WHEN & WHY to use declarative/procedural knowledge (e.g., skimming the text to find the main idea when it’s appropriate; adapting teaching method to meet a student’s need), IMPORTANT for metacognition

• Helps students select/apply declarative/procedural knowledge that applies to task goals

• Lack of conditional knowledge abt when/why d and p knowledge is valuable -> inappropriate use (e.g., skimming important reading)

• Represented in LTM as propositions in networks and linked w d & p knowledge to which it applies

• An integral part of self-regulated learning (selecting effective strategies before starting a task)

Metacognition Involves 2 related sets of skills:

1. Knowing WHAT a task requires (skills, strategies, resources)

2. Knowing HOW AND WHEN to use skills/strategies effectively to ensure the task is completed successfully (e.g., monitoring/regulating thinking, checking progress, planning, managing time, etc.)

Learner variables (1/3 variables influencing metacognition)

developmental level/age (we become better at evaluating our learning as we age), individual differences (accuracy in monitoring learning, over/underestimating understanding)

Task Variables (1/3 variables influencing metacognition)

Task difficulty (older kids are better at evaluating a task’s difficulty and how they’ll approach the task), task strategies, familiarity (more routine tasks may not require as much monitoring)

Strategy variables (1/3 variables influencing metacognition)

note-taking, rehearsal, self-testing (as we age, our strategies are refined)

Epistemic thinking

cognitive (attention, remembering, perception, etc) & metacognitive processes involving learners’ beliefs abt how they learn

Epistemic metacognition

develops as we age (children develop theory of mind and later develop understanding that the same info can be interpreted in diff ways

Metacognition and Behavior

knowing what strategies to use doesn’t guarantee you’ll USE them (effective use of strategies depends on when, where, and why)

• Implications for instruction: teaching metacognitive strategies in isolation doesn’t mean students will automatically use them, students need underlying knowledge/skills to make strategies MEANINGFUL, students need opportunities to PRACTICE using strategies across diff tasks, and teachers should provide FEEDBACK on effectiveness of strategies

Metacognition and Reading

• SKILLED readers: determine goal (find main idea, skim), use strategy that’s most appropriate, monitor understanding throughout the task and adjust 

• Teachers and parents help kids develop metacognitive abilities

• Effective teaching procedure: informs kids of goal, brings awareness of relevant info, arrange situation conducive to problem solving, and remind kids of goal progress

Summarizing (strategy for reading that fosters ACTIVE engagement w texts)

Identifying/restating most important ideas from text to check understanding

Questioning (strategy for reading that fosters ACTIVE engagement w texts)

Generating questions abt key ideas to focus attention and guide comprehension

Clarifying (strategy for reading that fosters ACTIVE engagement w texts)

Identifying confusing parts of text & using strategies to resolve misunderstandings

Predicting (strategy for reading that fosters ACTIVE engagement w texts)

anticipating what comes next based on prior knowledge/text clues

Concept Learning

the process by which experience allows one to categorize objects into classes for the purposes of generalization, discrimination, and inference

• Concept: any labeled set of objects, symbols, or events that share common characteristics or attributes; mental constructs/representations of a category that allow one to identify examples & nonexamples of this category

  • Can be concrete objects or abstract ideas

Nature of Concepts (Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin, 1956)

Learners form hypotheses about the RULE underlying the concept (discerning characteristics)

• Participants shown boxes w different geometrical patterns

• Task: identify concept represented in diff subsets of boxes

• Conjunctive, disjunctive, and relational concepts were studied

Features Analysis Theory

Concepts involve rules that define the critical features, or the intrinsic/necessary attributes of the concept

• Through our experiences, we formulate rules that satisfy the conditions and retain the rules as long as they function effectively

• Predicts: diff instances of a concept should be recognized equally quickly because each instance is judged against critical features (examples are closely related)

• Some categories are harder to verify (are cats always fluffy?)

Prototype Theory

• Prototype: a generalized image of a concept; may include only some of the concept’s defining attributes; AKA schemas (organizes forms for the knowledge we have abt a concept)

• When confronted w an instance, we recall the most likely prototype from LTM and compare it to this instance to see if they match

Concept Attainment

there are diff ways to learn/modify concepts

• One way is being exposed to a typical instance of a concept that reflects classic attributes

• The second way is abstracting features from 2+ examples

• Prototypes can change over time as we better define a concept and its examples

Gagne’s Multistage Sequence of concept learning

1. Stimulus feature is presented as an instance of the concept along with a non-instance

   1. Discrimination (defining triangel and haing triangle and circle to reference)

2. Generalization: learner identifies other instances & non-instances

3. Stimulus feature (now concept) is varied & presented along with non-instances -> establish Concept Attainment (e.g., new exam question on exam abt what we learned, understanding the concept = being able to solve question)

Model of Concept Attainment (Klausmeier, 1990–92): 4 stages

1. Concrete level: learners recognize an item as the same one previously encountered when the context/spatial orientation in which it was originally encountered remains the same

2. Identity level: recognizing item as the same one previously encountered when it’s observed from a different perspective or in a diff modality

3. Classificatory level: requires that learners recognize at least two items as being equivalent

4. Formal level: requires learner to identify examples & nonexamples of the concept, name the concept & its defining attributes, give a definition of the concept, and specify the attributes that separate the concept from similar ones

Model of concept teaching (Tennyson, 1980-81)

• Determine the structure of the concept to include superordinate, coordinate, and subordinate concepts; identify critical/variable attributes

• Define the concept in terms of critical attributes, prepare examples with critical/variable attributes in the lesson

• Arrange examples based on attributes, ensure that examples have similar variable attributes within any set containing examples from each coordinate concept

• Order & present the sets in terms of the divergence & difficulty of examples, order examples according to learners’ current knowledge

Conceptual Change

Process of restructuring concepts that are foundational to the beliefs surrounding relevant knowledge & information

• FOUR necessary conditions: dissatisfaction with your current conception, the new concept must make sense, the new concept must be plausible (will be applied in the future), and we must perceive the new concept as fruitful (is useful/valuable)

• Conceptual change involves interactions between students’ cognitions & motivational beliefs

Conceptual Change & Science Education

• Rather than simply providing knowledge, teachers must take students’ prior knowledge and ideas into account when planning instruction & ensure that instruction includes motivation for learning

• Students often develop scientific misconceptions and simplistic scientific models

• Help students challenge and correct misconceptions!!!

• Promote more hands-on activities, collaborative work, and selective questions to encourage students to explain their thinking

Three-stage Model for Belief Change (Nussbaum & Novick, 1982)

1. Reveal & understand students’ preconceptions

2. Create conceptual CONFLICT with those conceptions (offer instances that contradict/conflict with students’ preconceptions)

3. Facilitate the development of new or revised schemas/prototypes about the phenomena

Problem Solving

efforts to achieve a goal for which we don’t have an automatic solution (part of learning/working through complex tasks)

Problem

Situation in which you’re trying to reach a goal and you must find a means to get there

• Common features of problems: initial state (learner’s current knowledge/skills), a goal, and operations (cognitive/behavioral activities used to move from initial state -> subgoals -> goals)

Trial and error

Thorndike’s research w cats involved escaping the cage as the problem. Animals would perform certain behaviors and test their consequences. After opening the cage, the cats would slowly get better at escaping.

• Cons: not reliable/effective, takes time

Insight

The brief moment where u suddenly become aware of a possible solution 

• Graham Wallas’s four-step model of insight/AKA 4 stages of creativity: 

• Preparation: learning abt problem and gathering info for a solution

• Incubation: thinking abt problem, perhaps stepping away from it for a bit

• Illumination: insight moment!

• Verification: time to test the proposed solution to determine if it works

Rule learning

Rules help with learning and retention bc they offer a simple description of the phenomenon and organize material. By arranging/rearranging elements, learners can eventually gain INSIGHT

• Rote memorization involves recalling a lot of info which is inefficient

Functional fixedness

inability to see new uses for objects or new configurations of elements in a situation that is required to solve a problem

• Also happens when learner uses a well-learned procedure on a problem for which the procedure is inappropriate

• To help students avoid rigid thinking, expose them to various procedures during instruction

Heuristics

general methods for solving problems that use principles (rules of thumb) that usually lead to a solution; helpful when working with unfamiliar content

Polya’s list of mental operations

Involved in problem solving: understanding problem, devising plan, carrying out plan, looking back/reviewing plan

IDEAL (Bransford & Stein)

identify the problem, define & represent the problem, explore possible strategies, act on strategies, look back & evaluate effects of activities

Information Processing Model of Problem Solving (Newell & Simon)

• We start at the beginning state and can take multiple paths towards reaching our final goal state

• As we move along a path, we use different operations

• We build mental representation of problem and try to find a solution that has the shortest distance between the beginning and goal states -> info is held in WM

• Info in WM -> activates related knowledge in LTM -> help us select strategy

• As we work through a problem, we may alter our mental representation as we think more

• Overly complex/incomplete representations -> improper solution 

General Strategies for problem solving

Applied across domains regardless of content (e.g., breaking goal into small steps); helpful when solution isn’t immediately obvious, less helpful than specific strategies when working in highly familiar content.

Generate-and-test strategies (GENERAL)

Useful when there’s a limited number of possible solution and you can test to see if one/many help you attain the goal (helpful when you can order solutions by how likely they are to succeed and when at least one solution is apt to solve problem)

Means-ends analysis (GENERAL)

compare current situation with the goal and identify differences

• Use subgoals to reduce differences

• Perform operations to accomplish subgoals and repeat until you reach goal

• Likely to solve problem when subgoals are properly identified

• Can be used to work from initial -> goal (working forward) OR work from goal to initial state (working backward)

Analogical reasoning (GENERAL)

Involves drawing a connection between problem (target) and a situation that you’re familiar with (base or source)

• Access info from LTM and bring it into WM to be able to relate/apply to current problem

• Successful when two situations are structurally similar (even if surface features differ)

• Map steps from the familiar situation onto the current problem (e.g., looking at textbook examples and trying similar problems on your own)

• Teaching kids to use analogies help all kinds of students 

• Works best when you have a lot of prior knowledge on original/familiar problem

Brainstorming (GENERAL)

Useful for formulating possible problem solutions. Steps include

• Define the problem

• Generate as many solutions without evaluating them yet

• Decide on criteria for judging solutions

• Use criteria to select the best solution

• Successful brainstorming requires that participants WITHHOLD criticisms of ideas until after ideas are generated (ideas inspire more ideas!)

Specific strategies

useful only in a particular domain

Production system (used in problem solving)

Networks of condition-action sequences, AKA rules, Conditions are the set of circumstances that activate system. Actions are what you do once conditions are met.

• A production system consists of if-then statements (if = goal/test conditions, then = action to take)

• Productions can be general (e.g., heuristics) or specific 

• General productions are unpacked step by step until more specific productions can be used

Differences between expert & novice problem solvers

Experts: have more declarative knowledge, have better hierarchical organization or knowledge, spend more time planning & analyzing, recognize problem formats more easily, represent problems at a deeper level, monitor performances more carefully, and understand better the value of strategy use

Critical Thinking

a reflective cognitive activity focused on deciding what to do or what to believe (conscious/active efforts); more about HOW to think deeply rather than WHAT to think

• Differences from problem solving: focused on understanding nature of problem, operates at a more general level, doesn’t require a decision/solution

Components of critical thinking

• Knowledge: some knowledge of issue helps us ask questions & judge new info/perspectives

• Inference: making connections between two or more ideas

• Evaluation: analyzing, judging, and weighing evidence (find relevant/trustworthy info)

• Metacognition helps us monitor our thought processes/reflect on adequacy of conclusions

Teaching implications: use real-world examples, class discussions

Reasoning

 mental processes involved in generating & evaluating logical arguments

• Yields a conclusion from thoughts, percepts, & assertions & involves working through problems to explain why something happened or what will happen

• Clarification: identifying and formulating questions, analyzing elements, & defining terms

• Basis: info from personal observations, statements by others, & previous inferences that support our conclusion abt a problem

• Inference: scientific reasoning proceeds inductively or deductively

Inductive Reasoning

developing general rules, principles, & concepts from observation

• Classification, concept, and analogy are common when assessing inductive reasoning

  • Solving this: sugar -> sweet, lemon -> ____

• Teaching implication: model how you evaluate info, make rules, & come to conclusion

Deductive Reasoning

 applying inference rules to a formal model of a problem to decide whether specific instances logically follow (take prior generalizations and apply them to specific scenarios)

• Goal: figure out if a conclusion logically follows from what we already know. We proceed from general concepts (premises) to specific instances (conclusions)

• Deduction problem example: Three-term series - “K is taller than T, but MB isn’t as tall as T, who’s the tallest?” 

• Deduction problem example: syllogism - “all students in K’s class are good in math, all students who are good in math will attend college, all students in K’s class will attend college.” (you have general premises and deduce certain conclusions)

Evaluation

using criteria to judge the adequacy of a problem solution. Students also address questions like:

• Is the data sufficient to solve the problem? Do I need more info? Are my conclusions based on facts, opinions, or reasoned judgments?”

• Evaluation involves deciding on what ought to happen next by formulating hypotheses abt future events

Creative Thinking

development of a novel idea, problem solution, or product that is of value & appropriate for the individual or larger social group

• Differences from other cognitive processes: NOVELTY & Value (appropriateness)

• Big C creativity: RARE, ideas that are transformative (e.g., discovery of electricity)

• little c Creativity: small, local, everyday events (e.g., organizing a room), still indicative of thinking outside the box

• Creativity is dependent on combining concepts in new or unusual ways

• Key question: Can students learn to be more creative? YES!!!

• Creativity is affected by motivational factors (intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation)

• Divergent thinking: thinking about various solutions to a problem

  • Teaching implication: We want to encourage students to think differently

• Convergent thinking: thinking about a single, “correct” solution to a problem

Creative Problem Solving (CPS) Model

1. Understand the challenge (defining problem, gathering info)

2. Generating multiple ideas (divergent thinking)

3. Preparing for action (choosing an appropriate solution, metacognition)

Constructivism

Psychological & philosophical perspective contending that individuals form or construct much of what they learn & understand; learning is actively built through interactions with the world

• Knowledge is a working hypothesis that’s wormed within us (not imposed by outsiders)

Situated Cognition

Key premise in Constructivism; thinking and learning are embedded in physical & social contexts rather than solely the mind!

• Many processes interact to produce learning

Differences between Constructivism & Behaviorism

• Rather than relying on external forces to explain learning (B), there’s more focus on the LEARNER & what goes on internally (C)

• Learning is constructed (C) rather than acquired (B)

Assumptions that Constructivism REJECTS

• Thinking is solely in the mind rather than emerging through interactions/situations

• Processes of learning/thinking are UNIFORM across people, some situations foster higher-thinking better than others

• Thinking primarily derives from knowledge/skills developed in formal instructional settings more than broader conceptual competencies that come from daily experiences and innate abilities

• Scientific truths exist & await discovery

Assumptions in Constructivism

• People are ACTIVE learners & develop knowledge for themselves

• Teachers shouldn’t teach in the traditional way of delivering instruction. They should create situations where learners can become actively involved w content through manipulation of materials & social interactions

Exogenous Constructivism (1/3 perspectives)

Learning involves reconstructing structures that already exist in the world; knowledge is built through experiences, teaching, and exposure to models. Strong emphasis on external environment. Knowledge is accurate to the extent that it reflects external reality. (similar to schemas, productions)

• Helpful when we want to study how accurately students grasp knowledge

Endogenous Constructivism (1/3 perspectives)

More emphasis on internal cognitive activity. Knowledge is NOT a reflection of the external world. Instead, knowledge develops through cognitive abstraction (building on prior mental structures).

• As seen in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

• Helpful for studying how learners become more advanced

Dialectical Constructivism (1/3 perspectives)

Knowledge derives from interactions between people and their environment. Constructions aren’t solely tied to external world or internal processes. Knowledge reflects the outcomes of mental contradictions that result from one’s interactions with the environment

• Aligns w Bandura’s social cognitive theories, motivation theories, Bruner and Vygotsky’s theories

• Helpful when designing instruction/interactions that challenge students and consider social influences (peer work, modeling)

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Concerned with knowing (how we acquire knowledge), reflects fundamental ideas of constructivism

• children move through FOUR distinct stages—sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational—transforming how they understand the world. Development occurs through active exploration and two key processes: assimilation (fitting new info into existing schemas) and accommodation (modifying schemas)

• Each stage builds on prior stages

Equilibration (Piaget)

Biological drive to achieve an optimal state of equilibrium between cognitive structures and environment. Central factor & motivating force behind cognitive development. Helps us coordinate all factors and helps make internal structures consistent with external experiences.

Cognitive Development depends on…

1. Biological maturation

2. Experience with the physical environment

3. Experience with the social environment

4. Equilibration

Assimilation (Piaget)

Fitting external reality (new info) to existing cognitive structure to help reach equilibration (e.g., adjusting new info to fit your prior knowledge)

Accommodation

Changing internal structures to provide consistency w external reality (e.g., changing beliefs to align w new info)

1. Sensorimotor (Birth-2yrs)

Learn through direct action; understanding is rooted in what one can do. Begin to develop the capacity for symbolic thought.

2. Preoperational (2-7 yrs)

Children learn to think abt past & future (not just present); thinking is still heavily tied to perception; focusing on 1 dimension at a time (e.g., length, width); difficulty understanding that actions can be reversed; language developing rapidly; children begin to recognize that others have thoughts/feelings; trouble discerning fact/fiction

3. Concrete operational (7-11 yrs)

Significant cognitive growth, more logical thinking; develops key concepts for reasoning, less egocentric, less influence of immediate perception.

Formal Operational (11 - adult)

think abstractly, consider hypotheticals; more sophisticated thinking, can think abt multiple dimensions; more idealistic thinking

Cognitive Conflict

Conflict between cognitive structures & external world/reality help promote learning. Kids engage in assimilation or accommodation to construct/alter internal structures

• Learning is optimal when conflict is small & when kids are transitioning between stages

• New info should be partially understood (assimilation) before it can promote structural change (accommodation)

Constructivist teaching implications

• Cognitive develop is only accelerated through teaching

• Teachers should understand cognitive development

• Keep students ACTIVE (exploration, hands-on)

• Instruction should create cognitive conflict to help kids learn

• Provide opportunities for social interaction to expose kids to diff perspectives

Bruner’s Theory of Cognitive Growth

Highlights various ways that children represent knowledge. Does not link changes in development w cognitive structure or argues that there are diff stages (like Piaget does)

• Development is shaped by technological advances (language & instruction)

• Cognitive processes (thoughts, belilefs) MEDIATE the relationship between stimulus & response. Stimulus -> Thoughts/Beliefs -> Response

Enactive representation (Bruner 1/3 ways of representing knowledge)

involves motor responses or ways to manipulate the environment (thinking abt playing w a ball)

Iconic Representation (1/3 Bruner ways of representing knowledge)

action-free mental images; visualizing a concept (e.g., thinking abt a ball)

Symbolic representation (1/3 Bruner ways of representing knowledge)

Reading & using symbol systems (language, math notation, cultural symbols) to encode knowledge. We rely a lot on this final stage.

Spiral Curriculum

Constantly revisiting topics over time with increasing complexity & nuance

• Concepts should initially be taught very SIMPLY so that kids understand them 

• Concepts should be represented in a more complex fashion with development

• Bruner: teaching should be tailored to individual ways of representing knowledge as a means of prompting cognitive development

• Instruction should be differentiated to match children’s cognitive capabilities

Similarities between Bruner & Piaget’s theories

1. Bruner’s theory is constructivist bc it assumes that any age, learners assign meaning to stimuli & events based on cognitive capabilities and EXPERIENCES with social and physical environments

2. Bruner’s forms of knowledge representation are similar to operations kids engage in Piaget’s stages

   1. sensorimotor = enactive (involve motor responses), concrete operational = iconic (involve visualizations), formal operational = symbolic (abstract thinking)

Difference between Bruner & Piaget’s theories

Bruner’s theory believes that concepts can be mentally represented in multiple modes SIMULTANEOUSLY (we can revert back to iconic/enactive when it’s more relevant/useful. Piaget’s stages are more fixed/linear

Bruner’s implications for teaching

• Represent content in multiple modalities/ways (videos, discussions, activities, real-world applications). These diff experiences help students revisit concepts.

• Periodically review content in increasing complexity

• Devise ways to help learners at all ages to meaningfully understand content

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Constructivism Theory

Emphasizes that learning & development are primarily shaped by social environment, language, and cultural context, with humans actively transforming their environment rather than reacting to it.

• Historical/intellectual context: Vygotsky was influenced by Marxist thought & the Russian Revolution -> Focus on social mediation of learning and a shift from reflex-based psych to cultural-historical perspective. Lots of work was delayed due to political constraints.

Basic principles of sociocultural constructivism

Vygotsky rejected introspection, believed social interaction is central to development, and that engagement w others shapes human consciousness 

• Development results from the interaction of interpersonal (social), cultural-historical, and individual factors. Learning is always embedded in context.

• Cognition is shaped & changed through cultural tools such as language, symbols, and social institutions, which are internalized & used to guide thinking & behavior. 

• Vygotsky argued that all higher mental processes originate in the SOCIAL environment (but criticized for being too strong)

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The gap between what a learner can do independently & what they can do with guidance or collaboration. This represents the potential for learning under the right conditions.

• Development occurs through guided participation & use of cultural tools, with learners actively constructing meaning 

• Learning involves internalization of social interactions & can occur through sudden insight

• Highlights the role of cultural context & social institutions (school) in sharing development

Scaffolding (Vygotsky teaching implications)

Teacher builds on students’ prior knowledge to introduce new information. The teacher gradually gives up more responsibility to the students & support is gradually withdrawn so that learners gain competence. This allows learners to perform tasks independently within the ZPD

• Helps support learners by managing difficult task elements so that students can focus on what they’re ready to learn

• Aligns with modeling & Shaping, guiding learners through stages of skill development while keeping instruction targeted & supportive

Reciprocal Teaching

Involves interactive dialogue between teacher & small group. Teacher models strategies & students gradually take on the role of the teacher, reflecting scaffolding & social interaction.

• Peer collaboration supports learning through shared responsibility & interaction, aligning w Vygotsky’s idea of collective activity 

• Effective peer learning requires clear roles/shared accountability and is used across domains. This highlights importance of social environment in learning.

Apprenticeship

Involves novice working closely w experts on real tasks, allowing learning to occur within the ZPD through social interaction & shared activity

• Learning is supported through modeling & gradually reduction of support (responsibility shifts from expert to learner over time) 

• Widely used across contexts (teaching, research, internships). This highlights the importance of mentorship & real-world learning environments for skill development

Private Speech (Vygotsky)

Self-directed language that supports self-regulation but isn’t meant for communication w others. It helps people guide their thinking.

• Through social interaction, kids internalize language & use private speech to organize thought, solve problems, & regulate actions.

• Over time, private speech shifts from overt (spoken aloud) to covert (internalized), though it can reappear during challenging tasks. Its role in self-regulation increased with age.

Verbalization & Achievement

Verbalizing rules, strategies, & procedures supports learning & mirrors the shift from overt -> covert private speech, promoting self-regulation

• Most helpful for students w learning difficulties, as it improves attention, rehearsal, and systematic task engagement

• Can be ineffective or distractive for learners who already manage tasks well or for younger kids w limited cognitive capacity

• MOST effective when task-relevant, flexible, and gradually internalized, supporting long-term self-regulation & learning

Socially Mediated Learning

Vygotsky stresses that learning is fundamentally socially mediated through tools like language, symbols, & signs, which are internalized & used for higher cognitive processes (like concept learning & problem solving)

• Kids develop concepts through both independent observation & social instruction. Language plays a key role in labeling & organizing knowledge

• Effective learning requires teaching kids the cognitive tools needed for understanding. These tools enable learners to construct knowledge & support others’ learning.

Constructivist Learning Environment

involve rich, meaningful experiences where students actively construct understanding through interaction, inquiry, and reflection

Classroom Application of Constructivist Theory

Emphasize big ideas & active engagement rather than breaking content into isolated skills or relying on passive instruction

• Learning driven by meaningful problems & relevance, which helps connect experiences & challenge thinking

• Focus on HOW students arrive at the answer rather than accuracy, prioritize students’ thinking & perspectives

• Assessment is integrated into instruction & guides learning, rather than being a separate, test-focused activity

Assessment (Constructivist approach)

• Ongoing & integrated; helps teachers evaluate both student understanding & effectiveness of instruction

• Incorporate authentic tasks like reflection/application rather than traditional tests; prioritize deep, meaningful learning

• Focus on student thinking. Assessment is a tool for guiding instruction (very complex)

APA Learner Centered Principles

 Provide guidelines for designing instruction & school reform grounded in constructivism

• 4 major principles: cognitive/metacognitive factors, motivational/affective, developmental/social, & individual differences

• Emphasize that multiple factors shape learning

• Most useful when the goal is deep understanding & active learning, though teacher-centered instruction can still be appropriate in other situations

Peer-assisted learning (Vygotsky-inspired)

instructional approaches where peers act as active agents in the learning process; cooperative learning

• Improves achievement & motivation, especially for young/underserved kids

• Peer tutoring promotes engagement, questioning, & individualized support in a more comfortable learning setting

• Cooperative learning builds collaboration skills & shared responsibility, effective when properly structured

• Successful implementation: clear goals, group accountability, & thoughtful group strategies

Discovery learning (Bruner-inspired)

obtaining knowledge for oneself through testing hypotheses & questions, rather than reading/listening to lectures

• Form of problem-solving involving hypothesis testing, exploration, and inquiry; teachers provide structure/guidance 

• Effective discovery requires prior knowledge (declarative, procedural, conditional); best for complex, process-oriented learning tasks

• Guided discovery (w scaffolding) is more effective than pure discovery, as fully unguided approaches overwhelm learners/hinder learning 

Inquiry teaching

form of discovery learning that uses Socratic questioning to promote reasoning, hypothesis testing, & application of principles 

• Teacher guides learning through structured questioning strategies (counterexamples, probing predictions) to help develop a generalizable understanding

• Requires prior knowledge from the teacher, appropriate student readiness & support

• Implemented through one-on-one or small group settings, so that teachers provide individualized questions & support

Class Discussions & Debates (Piaget-inspired)

• Useful when the objective is acquiring greater conceptual understanding of MULTIPLE sides/perspectives in a topic

• Promote concept understanding & exploration of multiple perspectives, especially controversial/complex topics

• Effective use requires a supportive class environment, clear rules, & teacher facilitation that encourages participation & respectful dialogue

• The teacher guides learning by probing student thinking (e.g., asking for explanations/elaborations) instead of focusing on correct answers

• Flexible formats (e.g., small group, debates) increase participation & engagement, especially for larger classes

Motivation

Goal-directed behavior. Learners use cognitive & behavioral strategies (planning, persistence). It’s observed indirectly through actions like effort, choices, & engagement.

• Motivated students: persist through difficulty, actively process info, ask questions, & engage in learning even when it isn’t required

• closely tied to learning; it energizes & sustains learning processes (e.g., attention, rehearsal, elaboration)

Drive Theory (Woodworth)

Behavior is driven by internal physiological needs (e.g., hunger/thirst) that create a DRIVE to restore internal balance

• Drives: internal forces sought to maintain homeostatic body balance (internal balance)

• Need (deprivation of essential need) -> Drive -> Behavior (to reduce need & drive)

• Primary needs: (e.g., food, water) generate drives

• Secondary reinforcers: (e.g., money) gain value through association w primary needs

• Limitations: drive theory may not work well with complex/long-term goals or fluctuating motivation; we don’t always act on drives