European studies final

Q: How did Renaissance Humanism encourage people to question authority?

A: Humanism encouraged critical thinking and studying original texts instead of blindly accepting authority. Humanists like Lorenzo Valla used textual analysis to challenge Church claims, such as proving the Donation of Constantine was a forgery.

Q: How did Humanism influence Martin Luther?

Influenced Luther by encouraging direct study of the Bible, critical thinking, and questioning Church traditions that were not supported by scripture.

Q: What Church practice did Luther criticize in the 95 Theses?

A: the sale of indulgences because he believed salvation came through faith and God’s grace, not money.

Q: How did the printing press help spread Reformation ideas?

A: helped spread Luther’s writings and translated Bibles quickly across Europe, increasing support for religious reform.

Q: Why did Catholic France join the Protestant side during the Thirty Years’ War?

A: France wanted to weaken the Habsburg Empire and prevent it from dominating Europe, so political goals became more important than religion.

Q: How did religion and politics become intertwined during the Thirty Years’ War?

A: The war began as a religious conflict but became a political struggle for power. For example, Catholic France supported Protestant states against the Catholic Habsburgs.

Q: What political change resulted from the Peace of Westphalia?

A: it strengthened state sovereignty by allowing rulers to control religion within their territories and weakened Church political power.

Q: What were two major Enlightenment ideas?

A: reason and individual freedom. Thinkers believed people should think for themselves and challenge traditional authority.

Q: Why did Enlightenment thinkers value reason and science?

A: They believed reason and science could improve society through logic, education, and progress instead of superstition or tradition.

Q: What were the Estates-General and why were they important?

A: a representative assembly of the three Estates. Its meeting in 1789 allowed the Third Estate to challenge inequality and helped begin the French Revolution.

Q: What defined the moderate phase of the French Revolution?

A: aimed to create a constitutional monarchy, reform government, and abolish feudal privileges while keeping some traditional institutions.

Q: What defined the radical phase of the French Revolution?

A: aimed to abolish the monarchy completely, create a republic, and promote greater equality and nationalism.

Q: What was the Reign of Terror?

A: the most extreme stage of the French Revolution, where revolutionary leaders used executions and fear to eliminate enemies of the Revolution.

Q: How did Napoleon rise to power?

A: during political instability after the Revolution. His military success made him popular, and he seized power in the coup of 18 Brumaire.

Q: Why were Napoleonic reforms significant?

A: modernized France and spread revolutionary ideas such as equality before the law and merit-based advancement.

Q: How did the Congress of Vienna create stability?

A: restored monarchies, created a balance of power, and tried to prevent future revolutions in Europe.

Q: How did the Congress of Vienna encourage nationalism?

A: By ignoring nationalist groups and dividing ethnic populations, the Congress unintentionally encouraged nationalist movements, especially in the Balkans.

Q: What was Humanism?

A: a Renaissance movement focused on classical learning, critical thinking, education, and human potential.

Q: Who was Lorenzo Valla?

A: a Renaissance humanist who proved the Donation of Constantine was a forgery using textual analysis.

Q: What were indulgences?

A: documents sold by the Church that supposedly reduced punishment for sins.

Q: What were Luther’s “3 Solas”?

A: Sola Fide (faith alone), Sola Scriptura (scripture alone), and Sola Gratia (grace alone).

Q: What was the Thirty Years’ War?

A: A major European conflict from 1618–1648 that began as a religious war between Catholics and Protestants but became a political struggle for power.

Q: What was the Enlightenment?

A: was an intellectual movement that emphasized reason, science, progress, liberty, and individual rights.

Q: What does “Sapere Aude” mean?

A: “Have courage to use your own understanding.”

Q: What happened during the Storming of the Bastille?

A: On July 14, 1789, Parisians stormed the Bastille prison, symbolizing resistance against tyranny and the beginning of the Revolution.

Q: What was the National Assembly?

A: was formed by the Third Estate in 1789 after disputes over voting in the Estates-General.

Q: What was a constitutional monarchy?

A: A monarchy where the ruler’s powers are limited by laws or a constitution.

Q: Who were the Jacobins?

A: A radical political group during the French Revolution that supported the republic and more extreme revolutionary measures.

Q: Who was Robespierre?

A: was a leader of the Reign of Terror and head of the Committee of Public Safety.

Q: What was the coup of 18 Brumaire?

A: Napoleon’s overthrow of the Directory government in 1799, which allowed him to take control of France.

Q: What was the Congress of Vienna?

A: A meeting of European powers after Napoleon’s defeat to restore stability and maintain the balance of power in Europe.

Q: What is nationalism?

A: is loyalty and devotion to one’s nation based on shared culture, language, history, or identity.