psychopathology

Definitions of abnormality- Statistical infrequency

Statistical infrequency defines abnormality as behaviour that is rare or uncommon within the general population. Behaviours that occur infrequently are considered statistically abnormal because they deviate from the statistical average or norm.

in statistics, behaviours that fall more than two standard deviations from the mean are considered statistically infrequent and may therefore be classified as abnormal.

OCD: Affects only 0.5% of the population, making it statistically rare and identifiable as abnormal on a normal distribution curve.

Most IQ scores range between 85–115 (average = 100). Only 2% score below 70, which is considered 'abnormal' and qualifies for a diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder.

a03- strength- real world application in clinical practice

P:One strength of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality is that it has real-world applications in clinical practice.

E: For example, statistical infrequency is used in the diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder, where individuals with an IQ score more than two standard deviations below the mean may be classified as abnormal.

E: This provides objective and scientific guidelines for identifying abnormal behaviour, reducing subjectivity in diagnosis.

L:Therefore, statistical infrequency can improve the reliability and consistency of psychological assessments.

A03- WEAKNESS - CANNOT DISTINGUSISH BETWEEN DESIRABLE AND UNDESIREABLE

P: One limitation of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality is that behaviours which are statistically common may still be considered abnormal.

E: For example, depression affects a significant proportion of the population, meaning it is relatively common, yet it is still classified as a mental disorder.

E: This suggests that abnormality cannot be determined purely by how frequently a behaviour occurs.In contrast, behaviours such as having a very high IQ are statistically rare but are generally viewed as desirable rather than abnormal.

L: This suggests that statistical infrequency does not fully distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviour, reducing the validity of the definition as a way of identifying abnormality.

A03- WEAKNESS- NEGATIVE EFFECT OF LABELLING

P:One limitation of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality is the negative effects of labelling individuals as ‘abnormal’.

E;For example, a person with a low IQ who is happy and functioning well may still be labelled as abnormal because their behaviour is statistically rare.

E:This label may negatively affect their self-esteem and influence how other people perceive and treat them.

L: Therefore, statistical infrequency may lead to harmful and unfair negative labelling, reducing the usefulness of the definition.

Definitions of abnormality- Deviation from social norms

Deviation from social norms defines abnormality as behaviour that violates the standards and expectations of society.

Social norms are the unwritten or explicit rules about how people are expected to behave. Explicit norms include laws, while implicit norms include unwritten expectations such as queuing or maintaining personal space.

Behaviour that breaks these social or cultural norms may be considered abnormal.

This definition is used in the DSM-5, where antisocial personality disorder is characterised by a failure to conform to socially normative ethical behaviour.

However, social norms vary across cultures and change over time. For example, homosexuality was previously classified as a mental disorder and was illegal in the UK, but it is no longer considered abnormal. This demonstrates that judgements about abnormality are socially and culturally relative.

a03- STRENGTH- DISTINGUIISH BETWEEN DESIREABLE AND UN DESIREABLE - PRATICAL APPLICATIONS

P:One strength of deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality is that it has practical applications in identifying undesirable behaviour.

E:The definition considers whether behaviour violates social rules and negatively affects other people. For example, antisocial personality disorder involves aggressive and deceitful behaviour that goes against socially accepted standards.

E: This allows clinicians to identify behaviours that may be harmful to individuals or society and provide appropriate intervention or treatment.

L:Therefore, deviation from social norms can be useful in clinical diagnosis and maintaining social order.

WEAKNESS- CULTURAL RELATIVISM

P:One limitation of deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality is that social norms vary across cultures, making the definition culturally relative.

E:Behaviour considered abnormal in one culture may be viewed as normal or even desirable in another. For example, hallucinations may be interpreted as spiritual experiences in some South African and Asian cultures, whereas in Western cultures they are often classified as symptoms of schizophrenia.

LThis may lead to inaccurate diagnoses and inappropriate treatment across different cultures, reducing the validity of the definition.

Definitions of abnormality- Failure to function adequately

Failure to function adequately defines abnormality as behaviour that prevents an individual from coping with the demands of everyday life.

A person may be considered abnormal if they experience distress or are unable to carry out everyday tasks such as maintaining relationships, shopping independently or holding down a job.

This definition suggests that abnormality occurs when a person cannot function effectively in daily life or experience a normal range of emotions.

what are the Signs that Rosehan and Seligman proposed:

Maladaptive behaviour or dysfunctional behaviour - actions harming wellbeing

Personal distress - suffering from anxiety and distress because of their inability to

cope.

Observer discomfort- behaviour causing distress to others

Irrationality and unpredictability- behaviour that is hard to understand / seems

uncontrolled

a03- STRENGTH- TAKES INTO ACCOUNT INDIVIDUAL EXPERIENCE

P:One strength of failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality is that it considers the personal experience of the individual.

E:The definition takes into account the thoughts, feelings and distress experienced by the person rather than relying only on objective statistical criteria. T

E;his allows clinicians to combine the individual’s self-reported symptoms with professional judgement, leading to more accurate diagnoses and appropriate treatment.

L:Therefore, failure to function adequately provides a more complete and realistic assessment of mental health difficulties, supporting its usefulness as a definition of abnormality.

A03- WEAKNESS- INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

P:One limitation of failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality is that it does not account for individual differences in coping ability.

E:For example, two people with obsessive-compulsive disorder may experience similar symptoms, but one person may still be able to attend work and manage everyday life while the other cannot. According to this definition, only the individual unable to cope adequately would be considered abnormal.

L;This suggests that failure to function adequately may measure a person’s ability to cope with daily life rather than the actual presence or severity of a mental disorder, reducing the validity of the definition.

WEAKNESS- DOENT CONSIDE ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

P:One limitation of failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality is that a person’s inability to cope may be caused by external circumstances rather than a psychological disorder.

E: For example, someone who loses their job or experiences bereavement may struggle to carry out everyday activities despite not being mentally abnormal.

L:This suggests that failure to function adequately may incorrectly label normal reactions to difficult life events as abnormal, reducing the validity of the definition as a measure of psychological abnormality.

Definitions of abnormality- deviation from ideal mental health.

Deviation from ideal mental health defines abnormality as failing to meet the criteria for good psychological wellbeing. Jahoda proposed that ideal mental health consists of characteristics such as positive self-attitudes, resistance to stress, autonomy and accurate perception of reality. The more criteria a person fails to meet, the more abnormal they are considered to be. Therefore, abnormality is defined by the extent to which an individual deviates from ideal psychological functioning.

example. someone with depression may have. negative view of themselves and maybe considered as being abnormal

jahodas 6 (1958) criteria

6 features:

Environmental mastery: Competence in various aspects of life, adapting to changing

circumstances.

Accurate perception of reality: Viewing the world objectively and realistically

Resistance with stress: Ability to handle life's pressures effectively.

Self-actualisation: Striving to achieve your full potential.

Positive self-concept: Good self-esteem and a strong sense of identity, accepting

faults without guilt.

Autonomy: Independence in decision-making and self-reliance.

a03- strength- positive definition

P: One strength of deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality is that it focuses on positive psychological wellbeing rather than simply identifying undesirable behaviour or distress.

E: Jahoda’s definition includes a wide range of criteria, such as autonomy, resistance to stress and positive self-attitudes, providing a comprehensive framework for assessing mental health.

E:This offers a more optimistic and holistic view of mental health compared to other definitions of abnormality, which tend to focus only on negative symptoms or dysfunction.

L:Therefore, deviation from ideal mental health provides a more complete and positive understanding of psychological wellbeing.

A03 WEAKNESS- SUBJECTVE

P: One limitation of deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality is that it is subjective.
E: Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health are difficult to measure objectively because different people may have different views about what counts as psychological wellbeing.

E: For example, concepts such as ‘self-actualisation’ or ‘personal growth’ are open to interpretation and may vary across cultures and individuals.

L: This means clinicians may make subjective judgements when deciding whether someone meets the criteria for ideal mental health, reducing the reliability and validity of the definition.

A03- cultual relativism

P: One limitation of deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality is that it is culturally relative.

E: Jahoda’s criteria are based largely on Western cultural values, particularly those of the USA and Western Europe, where independence, self-actualisation and personal autonomy are emphasised.

E: However, in collectivist cultures such as China, prioritising individual autonomy may be viewed as selfish because greater importance is placed on group harmony and social relationships.

L: This means the criteria for ideal mental health may not be universally applicable across different cultures, reducing the validity of the definition.

what is phobia

phobia is a persistent and excessive fear of an object, place or situation. The fear and anxiety experienced are disproportionate to the actual danger posed by the phobic stimulus.

behavioural (people act) characteristics of phobia

• Panic – A person may panic when exposed to the phobic stimulus, which can involve behaviours such as crying, screaming or running away.

• Avoidance – Individuals often avoid the phobic stimulus, which may interfere with everyday life.

• Endurance – A person may remain in the presence of the phobic stimulus but continue to experience high levels of anxiety.

emotional ( people think) characterics of phobias

• Fear and anxiety – The main emotional characteristic of a phobia is persistent and excessive fear and anxiety caused by the phobic stimulus.

• Panic – Exposure to the phobic stimulus may produce feelings of panic and high levels of emotional arousal.

• Irrational emotional response – The fear experienced is unreasonable and disproportionate to the actual danger posed by the phobic stimulus.

cognitive ( what people believe)

• Irrational beliefs – Individuals with phobias often hold irrational and unrealistic beliefs about the phobic stimulus, such as believing all dogs are dangerous.

• Cognitive awareness – The person usually recognises that their fear is excessive and unreasonable, although they are unable to control it.

Behavioural explanations of phobias.

Mowrer (1947) proposed the two-process model to explain the development of phobias. Phobias are first acquired through classical conditioning and then maintained through operant conditioning.

classical conditioning.

• Phobias are initially acquired through classical conditioning.

• An unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as being bitten by a dog, naturally produces an unconditioned response (UCR) of fear.

• A previously neutral stimulus (NS), such as a dog, is repeatedly paired with the UCS and becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS).

• The conditioned stimulus then produces a conditioned response (CR) of fear, even without the unconditioned stimulus present.

• In the Little Albert study, Watson and Rayner conditioned Albert to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise. Albert later generalised this fear to other white, fluffy objects.

• This suggests that fear responses can be learned through association.

example

A phobia is acquired through classical conditioning by associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally produces fear. For example, a person may become trapped in a lift, where being trapped is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) producing an unconditioned response (UCR) of fear. The lift, which was previously a neutral stimulus (NS), becomes associated with the fear response through repeated pairing. The lift then becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), producing a conditioned response (CR) of fear even when no danger is present. As a result, the person may develop a phobia of lifts following the traumatic experience. Through the process of generalisation, the fear may spread to similar stimuli, such as small elevators, crowded rooms or other enclosed spaces.

little Albert

Aim

Watson and Rayner aimed to investigate whether a fear response could be learned through classical conditioning.

Procedure

Before conditioning, Little Albert showed no fear of a white rat, which acted as a neutral stimulus (NS). Watson and Rayner then paired the white rat with a loud noise made by striking a metal bar behind Albert’s head. The loud noise acted as the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), producing an unconditioned response (UCR) of fear. This pairing was repeated several times whenever Albert reached for the rat.

Findings

After conditioning, the white rat alone became a conditioned stimulus (CS) and produced a conditioned response (CR) of fear in Little Albert. Albert’s fear also generalised to other similar white furry objects, such as a Santa Claus beard.

Conclusion

Watson and Rayner concluded that fear responses can be learned through classical conditioning and can generalise to similar stimuli.

operant conditioning

Although classical conditioning explains how phobias are acquired, operant conditioning explains how they are maintained. Avoidance of the phobic stimulus reduces feelings of fear and anxiety, which negatively reinforces the avoidance behaviour. Because the anxiety is removed, the person is more likely to continue avoiding the phobic stimulus in the future. For example, a person with a fear of the dark may sleep with the lights on to reduce anxiety, reinforcing the behaviour and maintaining the phobia. making the phobia resistant to extinction

a03-