AP Biology Cram Set

1. What is a polar covalent bond?

A polar covalent bond shares electrons unequally, creating partial charges; in water, each O-H bond is polar.

a. Where is the polar covalent bond in a water molecule?

A polar covalent bond shares electrons unequally, creating partial charges; in water, each O-H bond is polar.

2. Diagram a water molecule including the polar bond and partial charges labeled.

Draw H-O-H with oxygen labeled partial negative and hydrogens partial positive; show hydrogen bonds as dotted lines between the H of one water molecule and the O of another.

3. Describe why water is considered a polar molecule.

Water is polar because oxygen pulls electrons more strongly than hydrogen and the bent shape creates partial negative and partial positive regions.

4. What is a hydrogen bond?

A hydrogen bond is a weak attraction between a partially positive hydrogen and a partially negative atom such as oxygen or nitrogen.

5. Where are hydrogen bonds found in water?

A hydrogen bond is a weak attraction between a partially positive hydrogen and a partially negative atom such as oxygen or nitrogen.

6. Draw a diagram of TWO molecules including the hydrogen bond and polar bonds labeled.

Create a labeled sketch of the structure named in the question, including the key bonds or components requested.

7. Identify three properties of water.

Key properties include cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, high specific heat, evaporative cooling, and ability to dissolve polar or ionic substances.

8. What is specific heat capacity?

Specific heat is the energy needed to raise temperature; water has high specific heat because hydrogen bonds absorb heat.

a. Describe how water has a high specific heat capacity.

Specific heat is the energy needed to raise temperature; water has high specific heat because hydrogen bonds absorb heat.

9. What is evaporative cooling?

Evaporative cooling occurs when high-energy water molecules evaporate and carry heat away.

a. Describe how water is able to facilitate evaporative cooling.

Evaporative cooling occurs when high-energy water molecules evaporate and carry heat away.

10. Describe two ways that organisms maintain body temperatures.

Organisms regulate temperature using sweating/panting, insulation, blood-flow changes, shivering, and behavior such as seeking shade.

11. Describe a hydrogen bond.

A hydrogen bond is a weak attraction between a partially positive hydrogen and a partially negative atom such as oxygen or nitrogen.

12. Identify THREE properties of water that are caused by hydrogen bonding.

A hydrogen bond is a weak attraction between a partially positive hydrogen and a partially negative atom such as oxygen or nitrogen.

13. Compare and contrast cohesion and adhesion.

Cohesion is water sticking to water; adhesion is water sticking to other polar surfaces.

14. What is surface tension?

Surface tension is the resistance of the water surface to breaking, caused by cohesive hydrogen bonding.

a. Which of the properties of water causes surface tension?

Key properties include cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, high specific heat, evaporative cooling, and ability to dissolve polar or ionic substances.

15. Using the properties of water, describe how water can move up a capillary tube to move from the roots to the leaves in a plant.

Key properties include cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, high specific heat, evaporative cooling, and ability to dissolve polar or ionic substances.

16. Using the properties of water, describe how a water strider can walk on water.

Key properties include cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, high specific heat, evaporative cooling, and ability to dissolve polar or ionic substances.

1. What are the four macromolecules?

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

2. What are the elements found in a carbohydrate?

Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

3. What are three functions of carbohydrates in living organisms?

Carbohydrates provide short-term energy, energy storage, and structural support.

4. What are the elements found in a protein?

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur.

a. What are the functional groups found in all amino acids?

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur.

5. What are three functions of proteins in living organisms?

Proteins act as enzymes, structures, transporters, receptors, signals, movement proteins, and defense molecules.

6. What are the elements found in a lipid?

Mostly carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; phospholipids also contain phosphorus.

a. How are the three different types of lipids different?

Mostly carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; phospholipids also contain phosphorus.

7. What are three functions of lipids in living organisms?

Lipids store long-term energy, form membranes, insulate/cushion, and act as hormones or signals.

8. What are the elements found in nucleic acids?

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.

a. What are parts found in all nucleotides?

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.

9. What are three functions of nucleic acids in living organisms?

Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information and help direct protein synthesis.

10. Which macromolecule(s) contain sulfur?

Proteins can contain sulfur in amino acids such as cysteine and methionine.

11. Which macromolecule(s) contain phosphorus?

Nucleic acids contain phosphorus; phospholipids also contain phosphorus.

12. Which macromolecule(s) contain nitrogen?

Proteins and nucleic acids contain nitrogen.

1. What is a hydrolysis reaction?

Hydrolysis breaks polymers into monomers by adding water.

a. Describe the process of a hydrolysis reaction.

Hydrolysis breaks polymers into monomers by adding water.

b. Identify inputs and outputs using a specific example.

Hydrolysis breaks polymers into monomers by adding water.

2. What type of bond is found in carbohydrate monomers?

Glycosidic bonds link carbohydrate monomers.

a. Specifically, where is this bond located?

Glycosidic bonds link carbohydrate monomers.

3. What type of bond is found between protein monomers?

Peptide bonds link amino acids.

a. Specifically, where is this bond located?

Peptide bonds link amino acids.

4. What type of bond is found between nucleic acid monomers?

Phosphodiester bonds link nucleotides.

a. Specifically, where is this bond located?

Phosphodiester bonds link nucleotides.

5. What is a dehydration synthesis reaction?

Dehydration synthesis joins monomers by removing water.

a. Describe the process of a dehydration synthesis reaction.

Dehydration synthesis joins monomers by removing water.

b. Identify inputs and outputs using a specific example.

Dehydration synthesis joins monomers by removing water.

6. Diagram a dehydration synthesis reaction of two carbohydrate monomers including a label on the bond.

Show two monosaccharides joining by removal of water; label the glycosidic bond.

7. Diagram a dehydration synthesis reaction of two protein monomers including a label on the bond.

Show two amino acids joining when OH from the carboxyl group and H from the amino group form water; label the peptide bond.

8. Diagram a dehydration synthesis reaction of two nucleic acid monomers including a label on the bond.

Show two nucleotides joining between phosphate and sugar; label the phosphodiester bond.

9. Diagram a dehydration synthesis reaction of glycerol and fatty acids.

Show glycerol bonded to three fatty acid chains by ester bonds, with water released during bond formation.

1. What is the monomer of a carbohydrate?

A monosaccharide such as glucose.

a. Identify the components of the monomer.

A monosaccharide such as glucose.

b. Diagram a carbohydrate monomer labeling the components

Draw a monosaccharide ring such as glucose and label carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms; for a disaccharide, show two rings joined by a glycosidic bond.

c. Diagram a disaccharide labeling the bond between the monomers.

Create a labeled sketch of the structure named in the question, including the key bonds or components requested.

2. What type of bond is found between carbohydrate monomers?

Glycosidic bonds link carbohydrate monomers.

3. Describe the structures of a monosaccharide and a polysaccharide.

A monosaccharide is one sugar unit; a polysaccharide is a long chain of sugar monomers.

4. Starch vs. Cellulose

Starch and cellulose are glucose polymers; starch has alpha linkages animals can digest, while cellulose has beta linkages most animals cannot digest.

a. Describe the structures of starch and cellulose.

Starch and cellulose are glucose polymers; starch has alpha linkages animals can digest, while cellulose has beta linkages most animals cannot digest.

b. What type of bond is found in starch?

Starch and cellulose are glucose polymers; starch has alpha linkages animals can digest, while cellulose has beta linkages most animals cannot digest.

c. What type of bond is found in cellulose?

Starch and cellulose are glucose polymers; starch has alpha linkages animals can digest, while cellulose has beta linkages most animals cannot digest.

d. Which bond can be broken by animals?

Starch and cellulose are glucose polymers; starch has alpha linkages animals can digest, while cellulose has beta linkages most animals cannot digest.

5. Describe two functions of carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates provide short-term energy, energy storage, and structural support.

1. Identify the property of lipids.

Lipids are generally nonpolar and hydrophobic.

a. How is this different than the other macromolecules?

Lipids are generally nonpolar and hydrophobic.

2. Describe the structure of a saturated fatty acid.

A saturated fatty acid has only single bonds between carbons, so it is straight and packs tightly.

3. Describe the structure of an unsaturated fatty acid.

An unsaturated fatty acid has at least one carbon-carbon double bond, creating a kink.

4. How does the level of saturation affect the fatty acid at room temperature?

More saturation makes lipids straighter, more tightly packed, and more solid; less saturation makes them kinked, more fluid, and more liquid.

a. What would happen if the level of saturation was increased?

More saturation makes lipids straighter, more tightly packed, and more solid; less saturation makes them kinked, more fluid, and more liquid.

b. What would happen if the level of saturation was decreased?

More saturation makes lipids straighter, more tightly packed, and more solid; less saturation makes them kinked, more fluid, and more liquid.

i. Fats provide energy storage and support cell macromolecules.

More saturation makes lipids straighter, more tightly packed, and more solid; less saturation makes them kinked, more fluid, and more liquid.

5. Identify the three main types of lipid macromolecules.

Fats, phospholipids, and steroids.

6. Describe the structure of a fat molecule.

A fat/triglyceride is glycerol bonded to three fatty acid chains.

a. Identify the function of fats.

A fat/triglyceride is glycerol bonded to three fatty acid chains.

7. Describe the general structure of steroids.

Steroids have four fused carbon rings.

8. How does the structure of cholesterol compare?

Cholesterol is a steroid that stabilizes animal cell membranes and helps regulate fluidity.

9. Describe the function of steroids.

Steroids often function as hormones that regulate growth, development, metabolism, and homeostasis.

10. Describe the function of cholesterol.

Cholesterol is a steroid that stabilizes animal cell membranes and helps regulate fluidity.

11. Diagram and label the structure of a phospholipid.

Draw a polar, hydrophilic phosphate head attached to two nonpolar, hydrophobic fatty acid tails.

12. Identify the function of phospholipids.

Phospholipids form the bilayer of cell membranes.

13. How does the structure of saturated and unsaturated fatty acid s differ?

An unsaturated fatty acid has at least one carbon-carbon double bond, creating a kink.

b. How does the level of saturation affect the function of the lipid?

An unsaturated fatty acid has at least one carbon-carbon double bond, creating a kink.

1. What is the monomer of a nucleic acid?

A nucleotide.

a. Diagram the monomer of a nucleic acid and label the structural components.

Draw one nucleotide with phosphate group, five-carbon sugar, and nitrogenous base labeled.

2. Identify the FIVE nitrogenous bases.

Adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil.

3. Describe the difference between a purine and pyrimidine.

Purines are two-ring bases: adenine and guanine. Pyrimidines are one-ring bases: cytosine, thymine, and uracil.

a. Identify which nitrogenous bases are purines.

Purines are two-ring bases: adenine and guanine. Pyrimidines are one-ring bases: cytosine, thymine, and uracil.

b. Identify which nitrogenous bases are pyrimidines.

Purines are two-ring bases: adenine and guanine. Pyrimidines are one-ring bases: cytosine, thymine, and uracil.

4. Describe the structure of the nucleic acid polymer.

A sugar-phosphate backbone with nitrogenous bases projecting from the sugars.

5. What are the ends called and what functional group is found at each end?

The 5' end has a phosphate group; the 3' end has a hydroxyl group.

6. Describe the directionality of a nucleic acid.

Nucleic acids are built 5' to 3'; new nucleotides are added to the 3' hydroxyl end.

a. Which end is the location of the growing nucleic acid strand?

Nucleic acids are built 5' to 3'; new nucleotides are added to the 3' hydroxyl end.

7. Describe the structure of DNA.

DNA is usually double-stranded, antiparallel, and helical with a sugar-phosphate backbone and complementary bases.

8. What are the complementary base pairings found in DNA?

In DNA, A pairs with T and C pairs with G.

9. What are the complementary base pairings found in RNA?

In RNA, A pairs with U and C pairs with G.

10. What type of bond occurs between complementary base pairings in DNA or RNA?

In RNA, A pairs with U and C pairs with G.

a. Describe or diagram where this bond is located.

Create a labeled sketch of the structure named in the question, including the key bonds or components requested.

i. DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose, and RNA contains the sugar ribose.

In RNA, A pairs with U and C pairs with G.

11. What are the three components of a DNA or RNA monomer?

A phosphate group, five-carbon sugar, and nitrogenous base.

12. Identify differences between DNA and RNA using the following chart:

DNA has deoxyribose, thymine, and is usually double-stranded; RNA has ribose, uracil, and is usually single-stranded.