a and p final exam vocab

do or die motherfucker

anatomy

study of the human body

physiology

study of function of different parts of the body

pathophysiology

study of functional, molecular, and cellular changes occurring within the body due to disease and injury,

sign

visible indication of illness

symptom

unseen effects of illness

homeostasis

self reg process

receptor

homeostatic control mechanism general component

control center

triggers effectors via nerves or hormones to bring variable back to set point

effector

acts in resposne to a stimulus

positive feedback loop and example

output of a system amplifies an initial change, driven away from the equilibrium

contractions for birth

negative feedback loop and example

self reg control syste, that acts to reduce, reverse, and counteract any deviation from a set point

blood glucose level, insulin release

anterior/ventral

front

posterior/dorsal

back

medial

toward midline

lateral

away from midline

intermediate

between

ipsilateral

same side, right leg and arm

contralateral

opp sides of body, right arm and left leg

proximal

closer to point of origin

distal

farther from point of origin

superficial

surface

deep

deeper than surface

cross section

study of internal body structures thru 2d slices

frontal plane

front and back portions

longitudinal plane

horizontal plane thru middle

midsagittal plane

equal left and right halves

oblique plane

angled plane

parasagittal plane

unequal left and right halves

transverse plane

superior and inferior halves

Major chemical elements of the body

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen. CHON

Ionic bond

attraction bn ions, electrons transferred from one atom to another

stronger than covalent

covalent bond

shared electrons bn atoms,

hydrogen bond

attraction of opp charged polar molecules or parts of molecules

weak bonds

formed when hydrogen atom is attracted to neg atom

formed w/in molecules → shape of protein, DNA

acids vs bases

acids: electrolytes that dissociate to release hydrogen ions in water

bases: release ions that can combine with hydrogen ions, the thing thatll pair with hydrogen released by acids

pH

concentration of H+ solution

role of buffer systems in homeostasis and example of buffer reaction

converts strong acids/bases into weaker ones to reg pH

dehydration synthesis

water removed to make bonds

hydrolysis

water added to break bonds

carbohydrates and function

quick source of energy

stored in liver and muscles as glycogen

manufacture cell structures

3 classes: monosacch, disacch, polysacch

monosaccharide and example

simple sugar, glucose

disaccharide and example

two monosach, sucrose

polysaccharide and example

10-100s of monosacch, glycogen

lipids and function

energy storage, insulation, protection

fatty acids

sat: single covalent bond

unsat: one of more carbons have a double bond

trans: mod unsat

steroids (cholesterol)

four interlocking rings

starting material for synthesis of vit d

phospholipids

makes up membrane

Process of amino acid formation from proteins, use terms carboxyl and amino ends, peptide bonds, polypeptide.

Amino acids are joined together by covalent bonds called

peptide bonds that connect the amine group of one amino

acid to the carboxyl group of another amino acid

enzyme and example and trends in naming

Globular proteins that act as biological catalysts

• Highly specific

• Very efficient

• Regulated by cellular controls

• Names usually end in –ase and are often named for the

reaction they catalyze

• Example: hydrolase, oxidase, amylase, lipase

formation of nucleic acids from nucleotides, especially nucleotide structure.

Composed of nucleotides: a nitrogen base (A, C, T, G, U), a

pentose sugar (ribose, deoxyribose), and a phosphate group

• Shape held together by hydrogen bonds – can be denatured

just like proteins

structure and function of ATP, why it’s a high energy molecule.

cytoplasm

consists of all the cellular contents bn the plasma membrane and the nucleus. Has two compartments cytosol and organelles.

plasma membrane function

forms the cell’s flexible outer surface, separates the cells internal environment from the external. Selective barrier that regulates the flow of materials. Lipid bilayer

cytosol

the fluid portion of the cytoplasm, also called intracellular fluid

nucleus and function

houses most of the cell’s DNA. Within the nucleus, each chromosome, a single molecule of DNA associated with several proteins contains genes that control most aspects of cellular structure and function.

cytoskeleton

elaborate network of rods that run throughout cytosol. provides cell shape and organization. Assists in movement and anchoring of cell components. Incudes microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments.

centrosomes

cell center, located near the nucleus, contains centrioles = a pair of barrel shaped micro tubular organelles at right angles to each other.

cilia

whiplike, motile extensions on some cell surfaces (eg respiratory tract cells) - sweeping motion to move substances (like mucus)

flagella

longer extensions that move the whole cell (tail of sperm)

microvilli

minute, fingerlike extensions of plasma membrane that project from surfaces of select cells. (ex.: intestinal and kidney tubule cells). Used to increase surface area for absorption.

ribosomes

site of protein synthesis, consists of two subunits: made of proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

Two forms:

free: free floating in cytosol

membrane-bound; attached to membrane of ER

Rough Endoplasmic reticulum

surface appears rough - covered with membrane bound ribosomes.

Used to synthesize proteins that are secreted from cell.

proteins enter cisterns and are modified as they move through fluid-filled tubes. Final protein enclosed in vesicle and sent to golgi complex for further processing

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

network of looped tubules continuous with rough ER. Contains enzymes in its membranes that function in:

lipid metabolism, detox of certain chemicals, conversion of glycogen to glucose. Storage and release of Ca, sarcoplasmic reticulum is specialized smooth ER found in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells,

golgi complex

stacked and flattened membranous sacs. Modifies, concentrates, packages proteins and lipids received from ER to: transport materials out of cell, inserts directly into plasma membrane, or hold contents in vesicle until needed.

lysosomes

spherical membranous bags containing digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases); made by golgi complex.

• release inside injured cells causes cells to self digest (autolysis)

digests ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins

degrades nonfunctional organelles

metabolic functions: break down and release glycogen; break down and release ca 2+

membrane fluidity

many membrane lipids and proteins move easily in the bilayer.

• cholesterol stabilizes membrane and reduces fluidity.

membrane permeability

selectively permeable,

liquid bilayer ALWAYS permeable to small, nonpolar, uncharged molecules

transmembrane proteins (channels or transporters) increase permeability

macromoleculkes only able to pass by vesicular transport

electrochemical gradient

the combined influence of the concentration gradient and the electrical gradient on movement of a particular ion.

concentration gradient

difference in chemcial concentration on eahc side of the membrane

electrical gradient

difference in ion concentration bn one side of the plasma membrane and the other

-creates electrical charges on the membrane

central dogma of biology

DNA → RNA → Protein

passive membrane transport

requires no energy input

• simple diffusion

• facilitated diffusion

• osmosis

active membrane transport

requires ATP

• primary and secondary transport

• vesicular transport- endocytosis (receptor-mediated, phagocytosis, pinocytosis/bulk-phase), exocytosis, transcytosis

diffusion

2 types: simple and facilitated

type of passive transport, natural movement of molecules from areas of HIGH concentration to areas of low concentration = moves down the concentration gradient.

Equilibrium reached when no net movement of molecules

simple diffusion

form of passive transport, influenced by: steepness of concentration gradient, temp., mass of diffusion substance, surface area, diffusion distance.

• nonpolar lipid-soluble (hydrophobic) substances diffuse directly through phospholipid bilayer. eg; oxygen, carbon dioxide, steroid hormones, fatty acids.

facilitated diffusion

form or passive membrane transport

transmembrane proteins help solutes that are too polar or too highly charged move through the lipid bilayer.

2 kinds;

channel-mediated, eg, K+

carrier-mediated, eg glucose

osmosis

movement of a solvent like water (not particles) across a selectively permeable membrane. Moves from areas of LOW solute (high water) concentration to areas of HIGH solute (low water) concentration.

Water diffuses through:

1. lipid bilayer

2. aquaporins

Osmolarity

measures the concentration of the total number of solute particles in solvent. More solutes = less water.

tonicity

ability of a solution to change the shape or tone of cells by alerting the cells’ internal cell function.

primary active transport

energy directly from ATP hydrolysis.

substances transported: polar or charged solutes.

Energy changes shape of a transporter protein which pumps a substance across a plasma membrane AGAINST its concentration gradient, LOW TO HIGH concentration.

secondary active transport

energy obtained indirectly from ion gradients created by primary active transport.

Substances transported: Na+, K+, Ca2+, H+, I-, Cl-, and other ions

Energy stored (in a hydrogen or sodium concentration gradient) is used to drive their substances AGAINST their own concentration gradients.

Vesicular transport

transport of LARGE particles, macromolecules, and fluids across membrane in vesicles (membranous sacs)

Example: muscle contraction, release of acetylcholine.

endocytosis

transport into cell.

3 different types: receptor-mediated, phagocytosis, pinocytosis/bulk-phase.

Substances transported: solutes in extracellular fluid

exocytosis

transport out of cell

substances transported: neurotransmitters, hormones, and digestive enzymes

transcytosis

transport into, across, and then out of cell.

Substances transported: antibodies, across endothelial cells. A common route for substances to pass bn blood plasma and interstitial fluid.

phagocytosis

cell eating, cell engulfs large solid particles.

pinocytosis

cell takes in small amount of extracellular fluids

general features of epithelial tissue

consists of cells arranged in continuous densely packed sheets, in either singe or multiple layers. AKA epithelium.

Many cell junctions are present.

Cells attach to a basement membrane.

Avascular (no blood supply) but does have a nerve supply

Mitosis occurs frequently.

Main functions of ET

protection, absorption, filtration, excretion, secretion, and sensory reception.

classification of ET, first name

indicates number of layers:

single = 1 layer,

• diffusion, osmosis filtration secretion, absorption

Pseudo-stratified = 1 layer that looks like many, deceitful

• similar functions as simple ET

• often have cilia or goblet cells (mucus production)

Stratified = 2+ layers

• protection

Classification of ET, second name

indicates cell shape

squamous

flattened and scale like, rapid passage

cuboidal

box like cube, secretion and absorption

columnar

tall columns; protection, secretion, absorption

Transitional

changes shape from cuboidal to squamous and back: allows for stretch/distension

Stratified epithelia naming

shape can vary in each layer, so layer is named after the shape in apical layer.

Simple squamous ET

location: alveoli (lungs)

function: filtration, diffusion, secretion, controls vessels permeability.

simple cuboidal ET

location: thyroid glands

Functions: secretion and absoprtion

simple columnar ET

location: gallbladder

functions: secretion, absorption

non-ciliated columnar ET

location: lines GI tract

function: secretion and absorption

pseudostratified ET

location: lining of nasal cavity

function: secretion, movement with cilia