Dendrite diameter smaller toward end Dendrites vs axons (size) dendrites smaller Apical cell body basilar; many dendirtes Electrical stimulation can change dendritic morphology Axon hillock where axons arise Axonal diameter maintained Organelles in soma;

Dendrite diameter

smaller toward end

Dendrites vs axons (size)

dendrites smaller

Apical cell body

basilar; many dendirtes

Electrical stimulation

can change dendritic morphology

Axon hillock

where axons arise

Axonal diameter

maintained

Organelles

in soma; synthesize macromolecules; nucleus, ribosomes, ER, golgi apparatus

Smooth ER

folding/synthesis of lipids for membranes

Rough ER

has ribosomes, synthesize proteins for membranes

Cytoskeletal proteins

allow cells to maintain 3D

Microtubules

axonal transport

Neurofilaments

neuro "bones"

Microfilaments

allow neurites to change shape

Laminar organization

neurons are organized in distinct layers

Isocortex

areas with 6 layers

Allocortex

areas with <6 layers

Synapse

presynaptic terminal, synaptic cleft, postysnaptic cleft

Gap junction

electrical synapse

Lesions to the hippocampus

anterograde amnesia

Lesions of the fornix

major output of hippocampus, memory deficits

Fornix

important for spatial learning

Development disorders

disorders by 22

Schizophrenia

distruabnces in thought, perception, or behavior

Positive symptoms

hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech

Negative symptoms

anhedonia, flat affect, loss of motivation

Cognitive symptoms

impairents to learning, memory, and executive functioning

Environmental causes

prenatal infection exposure, hypoxia (loss of oxygen during/right after birth), stress/distress, drugs especially at adolescence

Dopamine

thought to be involved; causes psychotic behaviors, removing it removes them

Glutamate

thought to be involved; causes psychotic behaviors, removing it removes them

Serotonin

drug LSD is a serotonin agonist; assume both hallucinations

Acetylcholine

thought to be involved; schizophrenics are heavy smokers

ADHD

hyperactivity, impulsivity, inattention

Predominantly hyerpactive-impulsivity

lacks inattention

Combined presentation

has all three symptoms

ADHD causes

sometimes chromosomal deletions, sometimes chromosomal replications; unknown overall

Brain of ADHD patients

reduce activity in prefrontal cortex and extrapyramidal structures; underactive/overactive frontalparietal/frontostraital/mesocortical circuits

Brain of schizophrenic patients

reduced limbic volume (especially hippocampus, parahippocampus, and amygdala); enlarged ventricles

Brain of anxiety patients

less active medial PFC; decreased gray matter volumes; greater amygdala activity

Anxiety causes

GABA deficiencies; monoamine defiency/dysregulation

Brain of depressed patients

reduced amygdala, prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus volumes; reduced blood flow in hippocampus and limvic system

Depression causes

glutamate/monoamine dysregulation; family members increase risk

Antidepressants

can help with ADHD if stimulants don't work

Behavior therapy

helpful for ADHD children

ASD

nonverbal communication, repetitive behavior, and difficulties with social interactions

ASD causes

genetic component (twin studies); viral infections, medications/complications during pregnancy, air pollutants

ASD risk genes

Fragile X and Rhett syndrome

Changes in ASD brain

some findings of reduced cortex volume; thinner temporal cortex (poor communication), thicker frontal cortex (social and cognitive differences), smaller basal ganglia (repititive behaviors), larger ventricles

ASD treatment

behavior treatment

ASD alternative treatments

SSRIs, antipsychotics, antiepleptics, ADHD medications

Conduction deafness

prevent outer/middle ear reaching cochlea

Sensorineural deafness

cochlea can't connect to cranial nerve

Central deafness

auditory disorders in brain

Tinnitus

perceiving sound in absence

Hearing aids

amplify all sound; for conduciton deafness

Cochlear implants

stimulates spiral ganglion from cochlea; for sensorineural hearing loss

Legal blindness

cone loss of function

Night blindness

loss of rods function

Color vision deficits

alterations in color opsins

Nearsighted individuals

focus on image in front of retina

Farsighted individuals

focus on image behind retina

Left hemianopia

damage to left visual yield (right side)

Right hemianopia

damage to right visual yield (left side)

Ideational apraxia

no sequence

Ideomotor apraxia

no simple motor activity on command

Constructional apraxia

no complex task

Parkison's disease

degeneration of dopaminergic cells in substanta nigra; l-dopa can help

Huntington's disease

caudate and putamen damage; involuntary movement

Astereogonsosis

inability to recognize objects by touching them

Prosopagnosia

face blindness

Hemispatial neglect

no attention to left side

Balint's syndrome

bilateral lesions to cortex; lead to three symptoms: oculomotor aprxai, optic ataxia, simulatagnosia

Oculomotor apraxia

can't steer gaze

Optic ataxia

difficulty reaching for optics

Simultagnosia

huge attention restrictions

Anosognosia

damage to right inferior frontal lobe; confabulation

Split brain patients

severed corpus collosum; used with sever epilepsy

Astereognosis

no ability to recognize objects by touching them

Prosopagnsia

face blindness

Aphasia

speech disorders

Paraphasia

substitution of wordwith incorrect phrase

Broca's aphasia

nonfluent aphasia; anomia, hard to produce speech

Lesions to basolateral amygdala

disrupt ability of objects to take on reinforcer qualities

Negative feedback loop

release cortisol actiavtes brain's glucocoriticoid receptors but also suppresses CRF production; worse in anxious/depressed patients

Physiological changes

new neurotransmitter, increase/decrease surface area, additional interneuron

Structural changes

new synapses, deleted synapses, synaptic reorgnization

Ventral stream of language

generally bilateral; "what"

Dorsal stream of language

left; "when" and "where"

Reward pathway

VTA in brainstem to nucleus accumbens to prefrontal cortex

Short term habituation

decrease in synaptic transmission; prolonged shutting off of Ca2+ channel

Autocrine feedback loop

output feeds back and inhibits secretion

Target cell feedback loop

hormone acts on target cells, biological effect, biological effect detected by endocrine gland, further release of hormone inhibited

Brain regulated feedback

hypothalamus directs hormone release; brain detects hormone's effects; hormone's effects exerts negative feedback on hypothaalmys

Brian and pituitary regulated feedback

pituitary releases tropic hormones onto endocrine cells; hpothalamys releases releasing hormones to regulate tropic hormones; negative feedbakc onto pituitary and hypothalamus

Eye coordination pathway

accessory optic nuclei in brainstem

Pupillary reflex pathway

olviary pretectal in midbrain

Refraction

bending of light rays by cornea and lens

Accommodation

eye's ciliary muscles adjust focus, changing lens' shape

Channel synapse

transmission without synaptic vesicles

Synaptic ribbon

hair cells in auditory system don't have the same SNARE components or synaptogamin

Early pain pathway

spinothalamic pathway; uses A-delta receptors to the primary somatosensory cortex