PSIO 107 Exam 1;

Ch. 1 content starts here:

Anatomy:

Anatomy= Form, What it looks like, structure

Physiology:

Function- relies on anatomy

Form Follows Function

Criteria for Life:

• Organization

• Respond to stimuli

• Growth

• Reproduction

• Movement

• Metabolism and secretion

Organization:

Internal structures are present and functioning

Respond to stimuli:

Reacts to environment

Growth:

Maturation

Reproduction:

Vital for survival of species

Movement:

Towards safety, away from danger

Metabolism and secretion:

Maintain energy balance, remove waste, store nutrients, create building blocks, etc.

Requirements to sustain life:

• Oxygen- requirement for metabolism

• Water- solute, necessary for chemical reactions, maintain volume

• Nutrients- necessary for energy and used as building blocks

• Heat- requirement for chemical reactions

• Atmospheric pressure- changes in internal lung pressure allows for breathing

Homeostasis:

• Ability to maintain a stable internal balance, given a change in a condition

-“Dynamic Equilibrium”

-Ex: sweating as a result of increased body temperature

• Control mechanisms associated with homeostasis

-Negative Feedback- regulation of body, temp, blood, nutrients and gases, etc.

Positive Feedback- childbirth, breast-feeding, allergic reaction

Feed-forward- anticipatory response

Negative Feedback:

Photo:

Room temperature vs body temperature example:

Photo:

98.6° is generally the average human body temperature

Positive Feedback

Example of Positive Feedback- Child birth:

Feed-Forward:

Anticipatory- like if about to run a race you’re anticipating you need more blood flow to feed tissues

Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Control:

• Intrinsic:If it can do its own control, its intrinsic

-Auto-regulation

-Control process within the system

Ex: Stomach activity caused by presence of food

• Extrinsic; if it needs control to come from somewhere else, its extrinsic.

-control process outside of system

Ex: brain influence on digestive activity

Organization of Human Body:

This exam is on an anatomic level

Organ systems:

Basic function of each in next couple slides

Integumentary system:

• First line of defense

• Protection

Extra: Skin sensation, regulate body temperature, synthesizes vitamin D

Skeletal system:

• Structure, frame on which the muscular system can mobilize body

Extra: Attachment for muscles, protects organs, stores calcium and phosphorus, produces blood cells

Muscular system:

• Moves body and maintains posture

Extra: internal transport of fluids, generation of heat

Nervous system:

Deflates and integrates body functions via neurons

A control mechanism

Endocrine system:

Regulated and integrates body function via hormones

Control system

Cardiovascular system:

• Transport

Extra: transports nutrients, respiratory gases, waste, and heat.

Transports immune cells and anti antibodies, transport hormones, regulates pH

Lymphatic system:

A transport system and protection

Extra: returns tissue fluids to bloodstream, protects against infection and disease

Respiratory system:

• getting oxygen or getting rid of excess carbon dioxide

Exchanges respiratory gases with the environment

Digestive System:

• Bringing in nutrients

Extra: Physical and chemical breakdown of food

absorbs processes, and stores food

Urinary system:

• Waste system and maintaining homeostasis with total body water

Extra: Maintains constant internal environment through the exclusion of nitrogenous waste

Reproductive system:

• Reproduction

Extra: Produces and secretes hormones, produces and releases egg and sperm cells, houses embryo/fetus (females only), produces milk to nourish offspring (females only)

Organ systems interact:

Organ systems rely on other organs for homeostasis

Anatomical terms- directional:

Lateral View (View body from side) terms:

Anterior (Ventral): Front Side

Posterior (Dorsal): Back side

Lateral is any structure off of midline, you can see it in next slide. Belly button is lateral to arm

Anterior or Ventral view:

Medial= Middle. The belly button is medial to the hip(s)

Superior: anything above. The head is superior to the neck

Inferior: anything below. The foot is inferior to the knee. The small intestine is inferior to the stomach

Superficial, deep, rostral, and caudal:

Superficial: close to the surface. Ex: hair is superficial. Epidermis (skin layer) is superficial to fat tissue

Deep is opposite. Further in the body.

Rostral and Caudal is more applicable to four legged animals. Cranial and rostral is towards head, caudal is towards tail

Proximal and distal:

Proximal: Closer to center of body

Distal: Further from center of body

Elbow is distal to shoulder, shoulder is proximal to elbow

Since humans don’t typically use Rostral and Caudal terms:

Abdominal planes:

Frontal (Coronal) plane: a slice taken through body from side

Horizontal (Transverse) plane: cut horizontally

Sagittal plane: through body from front, straight through middle

Abdominal Quadrants:

Right Upper Quadrant: liver, gallbladder, right kidney

Left Upper Quadrant: stomach, pancreas, spleen, left kidney

Right Lower Quadrant: digestive system, appendix

Left Lower Quadrant: digestive system, sigmoid colon

Body Cavities:

Know the organs located in each cavity.

Cranial cavity: brain

Vertebral cavity: spinal cord

Thoracic cavity: lungs, heart

Diaphragm: sits between thoracic cavity and abdominal cavity

Abdominopelvic cavity: contains both abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity. Digestive, urinary, and reproductive organs

Abdominal cavity: stomach, small intestine, colon, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, reproductive tissues, urinary bladder, rectum

Dorsal body cavity: spinal cord- contains entire central nervous system

Membranes:

• Cutaneous: skin. Discussed in chapter 5

• Mucus: line cavities that are open to the external environment. Discussed in multiple chapters

• Serous: line thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and some of their organs. Multiple chapters

• Synovial: lime joint cavities. Discussed in chapter 6. Oil like lubrication

All membranes produce secretion. Ex: sweat, mucus, etc. lubrication and traps by being sticky

Chapter 2 content starting now

If wanting video lecture go to video lecture 2, Basic chemistry at 41:45

Atoms- design and components:

-Nucleus

• protons

• Neutrons

-shell(s)

• Electrons

• “Shell rule”

-Nomenclature

• 1-2 letter symbols

Molecules and Compounds:

• Two or more atoms chemically bonded

-molecules=same atoms, or different atoms (aka: compound)

• Chemical bonds

-ionic

-covalent

-Hydrogen

Ionic bonds:

• One item donates one or more electrons to another atom

• Ions (or electrolytes) have a charge value called the valence

• Positive charge= cation

• Negative charge= anion

Covalent bonding:

• electrons and outer shell are shared between two atoms

• Electron spend time orbiting both nuclei

• Unequal sharing results in polarity, regional charge distribution

Hydrogen bonding:

• We attraction between negative and positive “poles” of molecules (such as water)

Chemical reactions- synthesis:

Synthesis:

A + B → AB

Dehydration synthesis:

A + B→ AB + H2O

Reactions where we take two molecules or two atoms or an atom a molecule, and we put them together to form a bond between them

Chemical reactions- Decomposition:

Decomposition:

AB→ A + B

Hydrolysis:

H2O + AB → A + B

Hydro= water, lysis= cutting. Cutting water

Chemical reactions- Exchange:

AB + CD → AC + BD

Take a piece from each one and smash them together. Example: two couples go to prom, they both have a fight, each person leaves with someone from the either couple

Chemical reactions- reversible reactions:

Reversible reactions can proceed in either direction

A + B ←→ AB

Activation energy:

• Energy must be added to chemicals to get them to react

-slow reactions

• A catalyst can decrease the activation required for a reaction

-quicker/ easier reaction

Enzymes:

Enzymes are our catalysts

Specialized proteins with active sites that bond to the substrates (chemicals, we want to react)

Like all catalysts, enzymes perform in the reaction, but are not consumed by the reaction. They can mediate many reactions

Compounds- inorganic and organic:

Inorganic

• not based on carbon chains

• Waters, salts, acids/ bases

Organic

• carbon chains

• Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

Acids/ Bases:

• change environmental parameter of what’s called pH. The acidic environment (pH= Power of Hydrogen)

• Based on hydrogen atoms which I’ve donated their electrons to another atom

  -only proton remains

-concentration of hydrogen in solution

• Strong acid/basis completely disassociate in solution

• Weak acid/basis, partially disassociate in solution

-buffers

• can adjust for small changes in pH

Scale is 0-14, basic scale. Anything below 0 or higher than 14 is unnecessary to talk about because it’s so strong it’s basically zero

Homeostatic range:

Set range of pH in our bodies/ homeostatic range: 7.35-7.45

Carbohydrates:

Monosaccharides- Mono- one

Disaccharides- Di-two

Polysaccharides-Poly- more than two

Why do we eat? Why do we consume food?

Because we need glucose. Our primary energy fuel

Glucose gives most efficient production of ATP

Lipids:

We come into contact with triglycerides the most

• Fats and oils

  -triglycerides

  -fatty acids

  -saturated vs unsaturated

• Saturated: consists of a chain of carbons that all have single covalent bonds (no triple or double bonds)

• Unsaturated: double covalent bond somewhere or multiple double covalent bonds in chain

Figure is not accurate in terms of shape- saturated fatty acid is straight as an arrow, unsaturated has a kink/ bent

• Phospholipids

  -cell membranes

  -prostaglandin's

• cholesterol

  -steroids

• LDL vs HDL

Proteins:

• composed of amino acids

-pool of 20 amino acids used to build proteins. do not have to memorize amino acids but do know basic structure

-3-4 levels of structure

• primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary

• structural vs functional

Primary structure:

Secondary structure:

2 types: pleated sheet- corrugated medal, up and down

Alpha helix: circling/ curling, photo:

Tertiary:

Made when the secondary structure keeps getting bigger and wrapping around. Basic structure of protein, its its 3D shape

Quaternary structure:

Final level unless protein is a subunit (piece of large protein complex)

Nucleic acids- RNA and DNA:

DNA and RNA.

• Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

-found in cell nucleus

-encodes genes

• Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

-Transfer RNA (tRNA)

-Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

-Messenger RNA (mRNA)

Energy:

• Kinetic energy: energy of motion

• potential energy: stored energy

Chapter 3:

Starting here

The “generalized” cell model:

3 components:

1.) nucleus

2.) cytoplasm

3. Plasma membrane

Nucleus:

Structure containing DNA.

-surrounding membrane called nuclear envelope

Pores allow access to DNA and export of RNA

-Also contains nucleolus, the site of ribosome production

• chromatin

-unraveled DNA

• Chromosomes

-condensed chromatin

Cytoplasm:

• contents of cell between nucleus and cell membrane. Consist of cytosol and organelles.

• Cytosol is a gel like medium in which the organelles are suspended and move about and consist of various solutes dissolved in water

• Organelles are membrane and close structures with specific functions

Mitochondria:

“Powerhouse” of the cell

• and remembering contains enzymes for ATP production. Chemical reactions occur within the matrix.

• Newly synthesize ATP passes through inner membrane in membrane space, then out via Porins through the outer membrane

Endoplasmic Reticulum:

• site of synthesis of cellular products. Like a factory.

• Rough ER is major site of approaching synthesis. Presence of chromosomes give it a “rough” appearance.

• Smooth ER in sight of non-protein products synthesis. Ex: lipids.

Golgi Apparatus:

• packaging and shipping facility. Enclose products within membrane “box”

Lysosomes and Peroxisomes:

membrane bound enzymes

• Lysozymes: digest or destroy substances inside of cell

• Peroxidases: detoxify chemicals or convert to less harmful substances

Centrioles:

• function and organization of mitotic spindle and cytokinesis (cytokinesis-taking a single cell- wrapping belt of proteins around outside and cinching belt down to pinch cell in two pieces)

• Associated with process of cellular decision

• Also function in organization of microtubules

Cytoskeleton:

• fibrous proteins would provide shape, structure, protection, and attachment

-microfilaments

-intermediate filaments

-microtubules

Plasma membrane:

• Phospholipid bilayer

-cholesterol

-transmembrane proteins

-glycoproteins

-glycolipids

Channels:

• transmembrane proteins

-allow water soluable substances to pass through membrane

-ions require only simple pores

-larger substances require more complex protein channel

Receptor sites:

• some membrane bound proteins act as a specific binding cipher specific substances

  -ligands

• Finding of ligand triggers some event to occur

-open channels or pores

-initiate intracellular changes or processes

Passive transport-Diffusion:

Simplest form of passive transport.

Movement of solids away from an area of higher concentration

Passive transport- Simple diffusion:

Movement of solutes across a membrane from high concentration to low concentration through pores

Passive transport- Facilitated Diffusion:

Passive movement of large molecules, requires carrier proteins

Passive transport- Filtration:

Movement of substances across a membrane or membrane barrier due to hydraulic forces

Osmosis:

As before: “water follows salt”

-water moves towards the area of higher solute concentration

-OR, water moves in opposite direction as solute diffusion

Active transport- Solute (Ion) pump and Bulk transport:

• Solute (ion) pump: channels that consume/ require ATP to move ion or set of ions

For the primary active transport notes: why is it primary? Because it is directly consuming ATP. Law of thermodynamics energy cannot be created or destroyed, can only be transferred from one form to another. The energy from breaking the bonds in the phosphate is used to move, sodium and potassium in the opposite directions. Energy is now stored up in the concentration gradient for sodium and potassium. High concentration of sodium on outside, high concentration of potassium on inside of cell. When we use sodium or potassium concentration gradient to do additional work it is the secondary active transport

Bulk transport;

He does drawing of active transport in video lecture 4 at timestamp: 41:40

Watch this to understand this drawing

Chapter 4 start

Left off on video lecture 5 (haven’t started)

Chapter four slides is tissues