DP1 Psych MM

Clever Hans

a horse appeared to do math but was actually reading subtle unconscious cues from people around him; showed researcher bias and demand characteristics in research

Little Albert (Watson and Rayner)

conditioned a baby to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise; fear generalized to other furry things; showed fear can be learned through classical conditioning but raised major ethical concerns since Albert was never deconditioned

Sears (1986)

found that over two thirds of psychological research uses only university students as participants; students are not representative because they have high need for peer approval, were pre-selected for cognitive ability, and are more egocentric than adults

Heinrich, Heine and Norenzayan (2010)

found that 67% of American psych research uses undergrad students and 98% of all psychology samples come from countries that make up only 12% of the world population; coined the term WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic)

Festinger et al. (1956)

studied a doomsday cult that doubled down on their beliefs when the predicted end of the world did not happen; demonstrated cognitive dissonance and how people change their thinking to relieve the discomfort of being wrong

Loftus and Palmer (1974)

showed participants car crash videos and asked questions using different verbs like smashed vs hit; participants who heard smashed estimated higher speeds and were more likely to report seeing broken glass that was not there; showed leading questions distort memory

Koluchova (1972)

prospective case study of identical Czech twin boys found at age 7 after being locked in a cellar and abused; after adoption their IQ rose significantly and by 14 they had caught up academically; showed early deprivation does not necessarily determine outcomes if intervention happens early enough

Cohen (1993)

gave 276 healthy participants stress tests then exposed them to a cold virus or saline placebo; people with high stress for a month or more were over twice as likely to get sick; showed a direct link between psychological stress and physical health

Marmot et al. (1997)

five year case study of over 7000 British civil servants; found that the most significant factor in cardiovascular health was how much control participants felt they had at work; less control meant worse health outcomes

Bowlby Internal Working Model (1973)

the bond between a child and their primary caregiver creates a mental framework that shapes how they see themselves and others for life; responsive caregivers lead to positive models; unresponsive caregivers lead to negative models

Ainsworth Strange Situation (1970)

structured observation where the mother left and returned multiple times; identified three attachment types: Type A insecure avoidant (ignored caregiver), Type B secure (upset but easily comforted), Type C insecure ambivalent (distressed and hard to comfort)

Luby et al. (2013)

found poverty is linked to reduced brain development in children; however nurturing caregiving could improve brain development even in poverty while stress and hostility made outcomes worse; showed parenting quality can buffer or worsen effects of poverty

Kar et al. (2008)

studied malnourished children and found they performed worse on cognitive tasks like memory and attention; showed a direct biological link between nutrition and brain function

Farah et al. (2008)

studied 110 African American children at ages 4 and 8; stimulating home environments led to better language skills and nurturing parents led to better long term memory; showed environment and parenting quality directly affect brain development

Noble et al. (2005)

found that children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds performed worse on cognitive tests; showed poverty directly and negatively impacts cognitive development

Rutter et al. (2007)

studied Romanian orphans and found the longer they spent in institutions the more severe their cognitive and attachment problems; early adoption significantly reduced these effects; showed there is a sensitive period for development but intervention can make a big difference

Werner and Smith (1992)

longitudinal study that followed high risk children and found some still developed successfully despite early adversity; showed early hardship does not automatically determine outcomes and that resilience is possible

Vygotsky (1973)

argued that social interaction especially through play helps children develop cognitive tools; children encouraged to read play instruments or do sports get intellectual and social stimulation; poverty and lack of education reduce these opportunities

Aranbarri et al. (2023)

studied 506 Spanish mothers and their children; found higher socioeconomic status led to better home environments fewer mental health issues and more access to childcare all of which positively affected children's early cognitive development tested at 26 months

Pepler and Ross (1981)

tested how divergent vs convergent play affects problem solving; children in divergent open ended play showed more flexible and creative thinking compared to those in convergent play with only one right answer

Russ, Robins and Christiano (2010)

longitudinal study that found children who engaged in more imaginative pretend play developed better divergent thinking and creativity over time

Lillard et al. (2013)

review of studies that found no clear evidence that pretend play directly causes improvements in creativity or problem solving; the relationship may not actually be causal

Cermakova et al. (2018)

longitudinal study that found people with low childhood socioeconomic status had lower cognitive scores in adulthood but SES did not affect the rate of cognitive decline over time; just the starting point

Simons and Chabris (1999)

gorilla experiment where participants counting basketball passes failed to notice a person in a gorilla suit; demonstrated selective attention and how focusing on one thing causes us to miss other things

Broadbent Filter Model (1958)

model of selective attention suggesting the brain works like a bottleneck filtering out information based on physical features so only one stream of information gets fully processed at a time

Schneider and Shiffrin (1977)

developed the automaticity model arguing that with enough practice certain tasks become automatic and no longer require conscious attention; supported by the Stroop effect

Geng et al. (2019)

suggested the most important strategy for learning to focus is training yourself to filter out distractions; familiar or habituated distractions are easier to filter than new unfamiliar ones

Rosenberg et al. (2015)

used fMRI scans and found stronger brain connections in certain areas were linked to better focus and fewer ADHD symptoms while weaker connections were linked to more severe symptoms

Durston et al. (2003)

used fMRI during a Go No Go task and found children with ADHD showed less activation in the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia suggesting weaker attention control and impulse regulation

Volkow et al. (2009)

used PET scans and found people with ADHD have lower dopamine activity leading to reduced motivation and difficulty maintaining attention

Chang et al. (2013)

longitudinal twin study that found higher concordance for ADHD in identical twins than fraternal twins showing a strong genetic component to the condition

Kokoc et al. (2022)

found a positive correlation between playing multiplayer video games and sustained attention measured using computer based tests

Ward et al. (2017)

found that just having your phone nearby even face down and off reduces attention a

Lowe et al. (2004) - aim

investigated the potential role of social learning in promoting healthy eating in British school children, specifically to increase fruit and vegetable consumption

Lowe et al. (2004) - sample

749 children aged 5-11 in two inner-city London primary schools; one was the control, one underwent the Food Dudes Program

Lowe et al. (2004) - three key measures

1) food choice observed on a 5-point rating scale at lunch 2) weight of fruit consumed at snack time (ages 5-7) 3) parent questionnaires recalling eating behaviors

Food Dudes Program - procedure

over 16 days children watched video adventures featuring the Food Dudes (young superheroes fighting Junk Punks); teachers read letters from the Food Dudes; children received a Home Pack to encourage eating fruit and veg at home

Lowe et al. (2004) - results

significant increase in fruit and vegetable consumption at school and at home; children who ate only 4% of fruit given went up to eating 68% after watching the series; effects lasted 4 months after the program

Lowe et al. (2004) - control school result

no change in fruit and vegetable consumption rates without the Food Dudes intervention

Watson and Rayner (1920) - aim

to explore whether emotional responses could be learned through classical conditioning using an infant known as Albert B.

Little Albert - procedure

paired a white rat (neutral stimulus) with a loud noise from striking a metal bar (unconditioned stimulus); after several pairings Albert cried at the sight of the rat alone - classical conditioning

Little Albert - result

Albert showed fear (conditioned response) to the white rat even without the loud noise

Aversion therapy

pairing an unwanted behavior with something unpleasant to create a negative emotional response (e.g. pairing alcohol with nausea inducing drugs)

Meyer and Chesser (1970) - aim

to reduce alcohol consumption in individuals with alcohol dependence using classical conditioning

Meyer and Chesser (1970) - procedure

participants given apomorphine which induces nausea and vomiting then exposed to the sight smell and taste of alcohol; repeated multiple times to form a conditioned aversion

Meyer and Chesser (1970) - results

many developed a strong aversion to alcohol; some reported reduced cravings or abstinence; results were mixed and relapse rates increased after several months without continued support

Strack and Mussweiler (1997) - key finding

participants were given both plausible and implausible anchors; high anchors led to higher absolute judgments than low anchors across multiple questions

Anchoring bias

the heavy reliance on the first piece of information we intake which acts as an anchor when making decisions

Confirmation bias

the heavy focus on information that aligns with our beliefs and the discounting of information that does not

Three ways confirmation bias happens

selective exposure (only surrounding yourself with things you believe); selective perception (filtering out info that does or doesn't confirm your beliefs); selective retention (only remembering things that confirm your beliefs and forgetting what doesn't)

System 1 thinking

fast automatic intuitive thinking with minimal effort; prone to assumptions and bias such as emotional first reactions

System 2 thinking

slow deliberate effortful mode of reasoning; less likely to think this way due to effort; minimizes errors and involves analysis

Lord, Ross, and Lepper (1979) - aim

to test the effect of confirmation bias at Stanford University

Lord et al. (1979) - sample

48 undergraduate students who held opposing viewpoints on capital punishment

Lord et al. (1979) - procedure

students evaluated two fictitious studies on the topic of capital punishment and did not know the studies were fake

Lord et al. (1979) - results

participants pre-existing opinions heavily influenced their responses; both groups felt more committed to their original position after reading; further polarization of existing beliefs occurred

Green and Bavelier (2003) - aim

to investigate whether playing action video games can improve visual attention

Green and Bavelier (2003) - sample

16 males aged 18-23; VGPs played action games 4 or more days per week for 1 or more hour per day for 6 months; NVGPs had little to no video game usage in the past 6 months

Green and Bavelier (2003) - task

flanker compatibility task: decide if a square or diamond appeared within one of six circles while ignoring a distractor shape outside the rings in compatible or incompatible conditions

Green and Bavelier (2003) - results

VGPs could identify the target shape much more quickly and were not distracted by shapes outside the circles; at difficulty levels where NVGPs depleted attentional resources VGPs still had sufficient resources

Green and Bavelier (2003) - conclusion

video game playing increases the capacity of the visual attention system by speeding up perceptual processes leaving more attentional resources available

Selective (focused) attention

the ability to filter and focus on relevant information while ignoring distractions; inattentional blindness is very common

Schema theory (Omar scenario)

Omar's previous school schema (working independently) conflicted with his new school's norms (group work); he avoided group tasks and was seen as unfriendly because he was applying the wrong schema

Classical conditioning key terms

neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, conditioned response

Operant conditioning key terms

positive reinforcement, positive punishment, negative reinforcement, negative punishment, fixed schedule, variable schedule

Fixed ratio schedule

reinforcement is given after a set number of responses

Fixed interval schedule

reinforcement is given based on time such as getting paid every 2 weeks

Gambler's fallacy

the belief that past random events affect future ones such as believing you are bound to win after many losses

Filter bubble

an algorithm showing you only similar or related content based on what you search or enjoy which creates an echo chamber

Loss aversion

the negative impact of a loss is felt more strongly than the positive impact of a gain; negative impact is about twice as strong as positive

Conjunction fallacy

believing a more specific scenario is more likely than a general one

vygotsky (1973)

argued that social interaction, often in the form of play, allows children to develop cultural tools that promote development. Children raised in environments where they are encouraged to read, play a musical instrument, or engage in sports have the intellectual and social stimulation that supports the development of cognitive skills. On the other hand, poverty and a lack of access to education reduce the opportunity for cognitive growth.

Farah et al (2008)

They studied how the environment and parenting affect children's thinking skills. The study included 110 African American children, who were observed and interviewed at ages 4 and 8. They found that kids with more stimulating environments had better language skills. They also found that kids with more nurturing parents had better long-term memory.

Aranbarri et al (2023)

They studied 506 Spanish mothers and their young children to see how a mother's socioeconomic status (SES) affects her child's early thinking skills. They predicted that families with higher SES would have better home environments, fewer mental health issues, and more access to childcare like preschool.

The children were tested at 26 months using a cognitive development test. About half were girls, and more than half had gone to nursery school before age 2.

Risk factors

Conditions that increase the chances of negative outcomes in development, such as low SES or poor mental health.

Protective factors

Conditions that reduce the impact of risks and support development, such as nursery school, family support, and structured childcare.

Practice play

A type of play based on imitation where children learn by copying others, but may not fully understand what they are doing.

Symbolic play

A type of play that begins around age 2 where children use imagination and pretend, using objects or actions to represent something else.

Convergent problem

A problem that has one single correct answer or solution.

Divergent problem

A problem that has many possible solutions or answers.

Pepler and Ross (1981)

A study that tested how different types of play (convergent vs. divergent) affect children's problem-solving. It found that children who engaged in divergent play showed more creative and flexible thinking.

Transfer of skills

The ability to apply what is learned in one situation to a different situation.

Participant variability

Differences between participants (like age or development level) that may affect the results of a study.

Russ, Robins, and Christiano (2010)

A longitudinal study that found children who engage in more imaginative (pretend) play develop better divergent thinking and creativity over time.

Lillard et al. (2013)

A review of studies that found no clear evidence that pretend play directly improves creativity or problem-solving, suggesting the link may not be causal.

Noble et al. (2005)

Found that children with lower SES perform worse on cognitive tests, showing that poverty negatively affects cognitive development.

Kar et al. (2008)

Studied malnutrition and found that undernourished children performed worse on cognitive tasks like memory and attention.

Theory of delayed cognitive development

The idea that poor nutrition delays development rather than causing permanent damage.

Čermáková et al. (2018)

A longitudinal study that found people with low childhood SES had lower cognitive scores, but SES did not affect how cognition declined over time.

Prospective cohort study

A type of longitudinal study where researchers follow a group over time to see how early experiences affect later outcomes.

Temporal order

When one variable happens before another, helping show a possible cause-and-effect relationship.

Farooq et al. (2024)

A study that found poverty increases the likelihood of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), especially household problems.

Repeated measures design

A research method where the same participants are tested multiple times over a period of time.

Effect size

A measure of how strong the relationship or impact between variables is.

Household disharmony

Problems in the home environment, such as violence, mental health issues, substance abuse, or family conflict.

Luby et al. (2013)

Found that poverty is linked to reduced brain development, but supportive caregiving can improve brain development while stress and hostility harm it.

De Souza (2022)

Found that positive parenting can protect children from the negative effects of poverty and improve outcomes like school achievement.

Werner and Smith (1992)

A longitudinal study that found some high-risk children still develop successfully, showing early adversity does not determine life outcomes.

Rutter et al. (2007)

A study on Romanian orphans that found longer time in institutions led to greater cognitive and attachment problems, but early adoption reduced these effects.

Semi-structured interviews

A type of interview with set questions but flexibility to ask follow-up questions.