psych readings + mindtap midterm 2 chapter 8, 9, 10

Learning

any relatively permanent change in behaviour that can be attributed to experience

Instincts

innate impulse that directs or motivates behaviour

classical conditioning

a form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli

operant conditioning

learning based on the positive or negative consequences of responding

Habituation

a simple form of learning in which reactions to repeated stimuli that are unchanging and harmless decrease

Sensitization

an increased reaction to many stimuli following exposure to one strong stimulus

unconditioned stimulus

something that elicits a response without any prior experience

food for a dog

unconditioned response

response to a stimulus that requires no previous experience

dog salivating at food (US)

conditioned stimulus

neutral perception that, thru pairing with a natural reflex, comes to elicit a learned response

the metronome make noise b4 food (CS)

conditioned response

response to a stimulus that requires exposure

dog salivating when he hears the metronome bc he knows it means there is food

acquisition

development of a learned response

extinction

Weakening of a learned response when it is no longer reinforced

spontaneous recovery

reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction

generalization

tendency to respond to stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus

reception bell vs. actual bell dog respond to both

discrimination

learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli

dog only responds to one kind of bell

taste aversion

a learned, often one-time, avoidance of a specific food or drink that the brain pairs with nausea or sickness.

Taco bell example

biological preparedness

thru evolution animals became biologically prepared to make certain connections, more strongly than others (fear conditioning)

Rescorla-Wagner model

A cognitive model of classical conditioning which states that the

strength of the CS-US association is determined by the extent to which the US is UNEXPECTED or surprising

- dog more willing to learn when food is unexpected and wants to learn how to get it again

Higher-order (or second-order) conditioning

Learning in which stimuli associated with a conditioned stimulus (CS) also elicit conditioned responses (CRs).

Latent inhibition

The slower learning that occurs when a conditioned stimulus (CS) is already familiar compared to when the CS is unfamiliar.

Law of effect

responses that lead to desirable results are repeated while those that produce undesirable ones are not

reinforcement

any event that increases the probability that a particular response will occur

positive reinforcement

when a response is followed by a reward or other positive event

negative reinforcement

strengthening a behaviour by removing smth unpleasant from the environment of the organism

partial reinforcement

pattern in which only a portion of all responses are rewarded

continuous reinforcement

when a reward follows every correct response

punishment

an event that decreases the probability that a response will be repeated

positive punishment

A consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behaviour by applying an aversive stimulus.

negative punishment

A method for reducing behaviour by removing something desirable whenever the target behaviour occurs.

primary reinforcer

smth that has inherent reward because it satisfies biological needs

secondary reinforcer

reward the organisms learn to like

premack principle

known as the relativity theory of reinforcement

• Or "Grandma's rule"

• Higher probability behaviours can be used to reinforce lower

probability behaviours

shaping

reinforcement of increasingly close approximations of a desired response

schedule of reinforcement

protocol for determining when and how often responses will be rewarded

fixed ratio schedule

predictable behaviour

A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs following a set number of behaviours.

- mario gets tipped every 6 food deliveries he makes

fixed interval schedule

rule for how long after a subject's first responses that reinforcement is delivered

predictable passage of time

variable ratio schedule

rule for delivering reinforcement after varying numbers of correct responses

unpredictable behaviour

variable interval schedule

rule for delivering reinforcement after varying amounts of time

unpredictable passage of time

biological constraints

Animals have a difficult time learning behaviours that are incompatible

with innate, adaptive behaviours

instinctive drift

the tendency of animals to abandon trained operant behaviors and revert to innate, species-specific behaviors over time, even with reinforcement

latent learning

acquisition of knowledge or skills not immediately observable in an organism's behaviour

observational learning

acquiring info on how to perform new behaviours by watching others

aversion therapy

treatment to reduce unwanted behaviour by pairing it with an unpleasant stimulus

cognitive map

a mental representation of the environment

reflex

an innate automatic response to a stimulus

systematic desensitization

method of reducing fear by gradually exposing people to the object of fear

token economy

behaviour modification in which desired behaviour earn objects that can be exchanged for positive reinforcers

9 encoding

converting info into a form to be retained in memory

storage

holding info in memory for later use

retrieval

recovery of stored info

multi-store model of memory

The memory model that visualises memory as a system consisting of multiple memory stores through which a stream of data flows for processing.

sensory memory

short-term storage system for sensory impressions

iconic memory

Sensory memory for visual information

echoic memory

Sensory memory for auditory information.

short-term memory

The second stage of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model that holds a small amount of information for a limited time.

chunking

process of grouping similar or meaningful info tgthr

working memory

ability to hold and manipulate info in conscious attention

central executive

Control centre, directs attention to relevant information

part of working memory system

visuospatial sketchpad

visual info

part of working memory system

phonological loop

Auditory and verbal info

part of working memory system

episodic buffer

integrates info, links to long-term memory

part of working memory system

maintenance rehearsal

repeating info over and over again to keep it active in short-term memory

elaborative rehearsal

Making connections between new information that you are trying to remember and already existing information.

levels of processing theory

The depth (shallow to deep) of processing applied to information that predicts its ease of retrieval.

long-term memory

unlimited capacity storage that can hold info over long periods of time

declarative/explicit memory

a recollection that a person is aware of having or is consciously retrieved

nondeclarative/implicit memory

a recollection that a person does not know exists and is retrieved unconsciously

episodic memory

recollection of personal experiences

semantic memory

general knowledge that is not tied to personal recollection

autobiographical memory

Semantic or episodic memories that reference the self.

highly superior autobiographical memory (HSAM)

jill price

able to rmbr everything they did everyday of their lives, comes around 10 yrs old

procedural memory

mental schema for how to do things that require motor or performance skills

priming

A change in a response to a stimulus as a result of exposure to a previous stimulus.

retrieval cue

anything that helps someone recall information from memory; Encoding specificity principle

encoding specificity principle

A process in which memories incorporate unique combinations of information when encoded.

context-dependent memory

The improvement in memory that occurs when the external context present at encoding and retrieval are the same.

state-dependent memory

The improvement in memory that occurs when the internal state of the individual is the same at encoding and retrieval.

spreading activation model

A connectionist theory proposing that people organize general knowledge based on their individual experiences.

schemas

A set of expectations about objects and situations.

serial position effect

when remembering an ordered list, the tendency to make the most errors with the middle terms

primacy effect

where items presented at the beginning of a sequence are better remembered than those in the middle

recency effect

best recall the most recently presented information or events at the end of a sequence

decay

proposition that the ability to retrieve rarely used info diminishes over time

proactive interference

tendency for OLD memories to interfere with retrieval of NEWER ones

retroactive interference

tendency for NEW memories to interfere with retrieval of OLD ones

mnemonics

strategy for enhancing memory

method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

amnesia

loss of memory

anterograde amnesia

inability to form or retrieve memories of events that occur after an injury or trauma

flashbulb memories

especially vivid and detailed recollection of an emotional event

memory

mental system for receiving, encoding, storing, organizing, altering, and retrieving info

recall

retrieval of info with a minimum of external cues

recognition

ability to correctly identify previously learned info

10 Language; Broca's area

vocalizing speech

speech production, language processing, and grammatical structure

language; Wernicke's area

opposite of broca's area

language comprehension and processing

Non-fluent (or Broca's) aphasia

ppl with this have a hard time with speech and there is differences in this part of the brain

- BUT COMPREHENSION STILL INTACT

- it's hard for them to speak but u can understand what they are saying

Fluent (or Wernicke's) aphasia

(PROBLEM WITH COMPREHENSION)- cant understand what the person is saying

- fluent but meaningless speech

bilingualism/multilingualism

Proficient in two/more languages.

linguistic determinism

this one says that if u speak a diff language then u have different thoughts/ideas from other ppl with another language- this theory does not hold water

linguistic relativism

language can shape thought but NOT solely determine