Social Research Methods: Experiments, Fieldwork, and Qualitative Analysis

What is the primary purpose of experiments in social research?

To test causal relationships between variables (whether X causes Y).

Define Independent Variable (IV).

The presumed cause that the researcher manipulates.

Define Dependent Variable (DV).

The effect/outcome measured to see how it changes in response to the IV.

What is random assignment?

Assigning participants to groups by chance to ensure group equivalence.

What is the difference between random assignment and random sampling?

Random assignment determines who goes into which group; random sampling determines who gets selected from the population.

What is a control group?

A group that does not receive the treatment; used for comparison.

What three criteria must be met to establish causality?

Correlation, Time Order, Nonspuriousness.

Define internal validity.

Confidence that the IV caused the DV (no alternative explanations).

Define external validity.

The extent to which findings generalize to other settings/people.

Name five threats to internal validity.

History, Maturation, Testing effect, Instrumentation, Selection bias, Attrition, Regression to the mean.

What is a classical experimental design?

Pretest → Random assignment → Treatment/control → Posttest.

Define quasi-experiment.

An experiment without true random assignment.

Why are experiments strong for testing causality?

They control variables, establish time order, and reduce alternative explanations.

Why might experiments have low external validity?

Often done in artificial settings unlike real-world environments.

What ethical issues are common in experiments?

Deception, Debriefing, Informed consent, Avoidance of harm, Confidentiality.

What is field research?

Studying people in their natural social environments through observation.

What are the main forms of field research?

Participant observation, Direct observation, Ethnography, Case studies.

What is participant observation?

Researcher observes while participating to some degree.

What is the difference between complete participant and complete observer?

Complete participant: fully involved, identity possibly hidden; Complete observer: watches only, no participation.

Define reactivity.

When people change behaviour because they know they're being observed.

What is a gatekeeper?

A person who provides or controls access to a social setting.

What is rapport?

Trust and comfort developed between researcher and participants.

What are field notes?

Detailed observations, conversations, context, and reflections recorded by the researcher.

What are the strengths of field research?

Deep understanding, Real-world context, Rich detail, Good for studying meaning/processes.

What are the weaknesses of field research?

Time-consuming, Hard to generalize, Hard to replicate, Researcher bias, Ethical complexity.

What is the difference between overt and covert roles?

Overt: participants know they're being studied; Covert: they do not know.

What is the main purpose of qualitative interviewing?

To gather in-depth, detailed accounts in participants' own words.

What is the difference between structured, semi-structured, and unstructured interviews?

Structured: fixed questions; Semi-structured: interview guide + flexibility; Unstructured: conversational, guided by participant.

Why are open-ended questions important?

They encourage rich, personal, meaningful responses.

What are probes?

Follow-up prompts (e.g., 'Can you explain more?').

What is an interview guide?

A flexible list of topics/questions.

Define purposive sampling.

Selecting participants who have relevant experience or characteristics.

Define snowball sampling.

Participants refer other participants.

What is transcription?

Converting audio interviews into written text.

What is saturation?

When new interviews stop revealing new themes.

What are the strengths of qualitative interviews?

Rich detail, Good for sensitive topics, Participant-perspective focused, Allows probing.

What are the weaknesses of qualitative interviews?

Time-consuming, Hard to generalize, Interviewer influence, Requires skill.

What ethical issues are present in interviewing?

Confidentiality, Informed consent, Sensitive topics, Emotional risk.

What is qualitative data analysis?

The process of discovering patterns, themes, and meanings in text-based data.

What is coding?

Labeling segments of text with categories representing ideas/concepts.

What are open, axial, and selective coding?

Open: initial labeling; Axial: connecting categories; Selective: identifying the core theme.

What is a theme?

A recurring concept or pattern found across the data.

What is constant comparison?

Comparing data segments across cases to refine categories/themes.

What are analytic memos?

Notes capturing insights, patterns, questions, and interpretations during analysis.

What is triangulation?

Using multiple sources/methods to strengthen credibility.

What is reflexivity?

Awareness of how the researcher's position influences the analysis.

What are the four quality criteria for qualitative analysis?

Credibility, Dependability, Confirmability, Transferability.

What are the strengths of qualitative analysis?

Rich insight, Captures complexity, Allows theory development.

What are the weaknesses of qualitative analysis?

Subjectivity, Time-intensive, Hard to generalize, Requires interpretation skill.