statistics phil 2

What is the main goal of epistemic objectivity?

To ensure knowledge reflects reality independently of beliefs and values.

What does methodological objectivity rely on?

Standardized methods, replicability, and quantification.

Why is observation considered theory-laden?

Because observations are influenced by prior theories and expectations.

What does verificationism claim?

That meaningful theories must be empirically verifiable.

What is the demarcation problem?

The problem of distinguishing science from pseudoscience.

What is a tautology?

A statement true in all possible situations.

What does modus tollens conclude?

If A→B and not B, then not A.

Why is affirming the consequent invalid?

Because the effect may have multiple causes.

What does the existential quantifier express?

That at least one instance exists.

What is induction?

Reasoning from observations to general conclusions.

What assumption does induction depend on?

That the future resembles the past.

Why did Hume criticize induction?

Because it cannot be logically justified.

What is deduction?

Reasoning from general laws to specific conclusions.

What is the deductive-nomological model?

Explanation through laws and initial conditions.

What criterion did Popper use for science?

Falsifiability.

What is falsifiability?

The ability for a theory to potentially be proven false.

What is the asymmetry principle?

One counterexample can falsify a theory, but confirmations cannot prove it.

What is an auxiliary assumption?

An additional assumption connecting theory and prediction.

What does the Duhem-Quine problem state?

That theories cannot be tested in isolation.

What is underdetermination?

When evidence supports multiple theories.

What is confirmation bias?

Seeking evidence that supports existing beliefs.

Why are many scientific theories probabilistic?

Because outcomes involve uncertainty and variation.

What is the null hypothesis?

The default assumption tested in statistics.

What does a p-value measure?

How compatible observed data is with the null hypothesis.

What is a Type I error?

Rejecting a true null hypothesis.

What is a Type II error?

Failing to reject a false null hypothesis.

What is normal science according to Kuhn?

Puzzle-solving within an accepted paradigm.

What triggers a scientific revolution?

Accumulating anomalies leading to crisis.

What is incommensurability?

The idea that paradigms cannot be directly compared.

What is the hard core in Lakatos’ theory?

The central assumptions of a research program.

What is the protective belt?

Adjustable assumptions surrounding the hard core.

What characterizes a progressive research program?

Successful new predictions.

What characterizes a degenerative research program?

Ad hoc explanations without progress.

What is the theory-data feedback loop?

Theories guide observations and observations reshape theories.

What is operationalization?

Turning abstract concepts into measurable variables.

What is a confounding variable?

A variable influencing both the cause and effect.

Why is randomization important?

It distributes confounders more evenly.

What is the difference between correlation and causation?

Correlation is association, causation is producing change.

What did Kuhn argue about scientific progress?

That science progresses through paradigm shifts.

What role do epistemic values play in science?

They guide theory evaluation using criteria like consistency and simplicity.