CISP references

Mills, 2004

discussed discourses as:

• a means to understand, establish and characterise the social world

• to bring meaning to social worlds

• having a genuine impact on us and the world around us

also discusses Foucault’s ideas of discourse

• interested in the power of language in promoting and reproducing knowledge

Howson, 2002

describes discourses as an ‘accepted world view’

Lafrance et al., 2015

argued that media plays a big role in communicating and shape knowledge and engaging in wider discourses

Foucault, cited in Mills, 2004

‘where there is power there is resistance’

Stainton-Rogers, 2011 (discourse)

Discourses aren’t static. Also, since we use the language used in discourses, can we ever really escape them?

Harjunen, 2016

Discussed neoliberalism and health, stipulating that

• a healthy, exercised body is a ‘good’ body

• the individual is responsible for their own body and health

• thus, a fat body is an ‘anti-neoliberal’ body

• poor health = poor values and low morality

Barber and Bridges, 2017

Discuss satirical ‘manvertising’, demonstrating a man engaging with a stereotypically feminine product (low-calorie yoghurt, salad and body wash)

Stacy Bias

website demonstrating different blog posts about ‘fatty archetypes’

Guthman and DuPluis, 2006

argued the difficulty of living in a body to be the ‘perfect’ neoliberal citizen

Holi, 2025

qualitative analysis of Instagram posts about body positivity and found that weight loss is now accepted as long as it is framed through authenticity, self-love and empowerment

Blanchette, 2025

wrote a critical commentary on how the availability of GLP-1s alters cultural and medical understandings of fatness through medicalising it as a pathological issue - fat bodies are then more stigmatised

Oswald, 2024

Argues that GLP-1s have reinvigorated anti-fatness through framing it as something which we can and should solve

Turnock et al., 2026

conducted an online ethnographic study and found that bodybuilders were using GLP-1s as an anti-ageing tool, lifestyle enhancer and way to ‘speed up’ efficiency

Rosenbaum, 2026

study found that GLP-1s were used by patients with previous eating disorders

Raubenheimer et al., 2024

study using google trends found that searches for GLP-1 Semaglutide coincided with media coverage and a spike was seen after a TV episode of Dr. Oz episode which discussed celebrity weight loss

Jackson, 2025

study on people involved with weight loss television programmes and found that people viewed GLP-1 use as ‘cheating’ and that there was morality attached with it

Burr, 2015

presents Foucault’s view that the human being is at the end of the discourse, a bit like a puppet, but that they can critically think and reflect. argues that first step of resistance is to identify and recategorise discourses

Dunn, 1959

describes wellness holistically, beyond physical health

Hammer, 2003

defines 3 key aspects of New Age spirituality:

• holistic view, placing human in earth’s natural environment. Mind, body, spirit

• intuition and indigenous spirituality as equal or superior to scientific rationalism

• our mental states shape ‘reality’

Harjunen, 2016 and Badr, 2022

discuss wellness and neoliberalism:

• governance of the self and personal responsibility

• personal growth and transformation

• success negotiated through engagement in consumerism and productivity

• discourses of morality and normal behaviours

Eberhardt, 2022

Study showing neoliberalism and wellness on Goop website: body described as ‘at risk’ of parasites and other things that might affect it, so consumers need to exert control and participate in consumerist practices to protect themselves

Baker, 2022

argues that the wellness industry relies on personal accounts and testimonies and unsubstantiated claims that ultimately have real-world impacts

Barker and Rojeck, 2020

Belle Gibson scandal and how people trust and believe influencers

Rehman et al., 2026

finds that Virtual influencers also have an effect on people’s behaviour and opinions

Coulter and Willis, 2004

describe a postmodernist approach to health, arguing that faith in science and technology has decreased whilst faith in CAM has increased

Astin, 1998 (US); Hunt et al., 2010 (UK)

found that those using CAM tended to be more highly educated, typically female, to have gone through a transformative life experience and to report poorer health

Lee, 206; Lawrence, 2022

Reported an increase in mistrust of medicine since 2008

Ofcom, 2023 → GB News

A report finding that GB news had breached broacasting rules by spreading disinformation about Covid vaccine

Ecker et al., 2022; Daubs, 2024

found that mistrust in medicine often stems from an affective need to find alternatives that match political and personal beliefs and experience

MacArtney and Wahlberg, 2014; Culinan et al., 2024; Zimdars et al., 2024

studies showing that mistrust in science and use of CAM does not come from ignorance, rather people are using personal epistemology (what works for them) - shows also people taking matters into their own hands, a sign of neoliberalism

Vuolanto et al., 2020

conducted an ethnographic study on people engaging in ‘everyday fringe medicine’ practices such as ‘body-mind-spirit’, vaccine hesitancy, and using digital self-tracking. They found that users criticised three parts of scientific medicine:

1. medical knowledge production was seen as based on capitalism, logic and profit. Users said that the medical community like to sell more and more drugs

2. professional practices: participants said the scientific medical system was impersonal, reductionist and holistic

3. knowledge base: there was a lack of individual care and practices were not holistic, instead based on population-level recommendations

Souvatzi et al., 2024

narrative review found that medical mistrust was worse in times of health crises: maybe because it is built on affect and people can see personal experience more?

Wyatt, 2010

suggests that critiques of healthcare system may arise from neoliberalism, putting the focus and responsibility of health onto the user

Rose, 2006

describes wellness as a practice to control the body and mind and being driven by consumerist market

Eberhardt, 2024

found that body is often described as ‘at risk’ of different factors such as parasites - which ultimately reinforces the idea that if you aren’t a ‘good’ neoliberal citizen, you will be susceptible to these dangers

Thompson, 2014

conducted interviews with users of psychedelic drugs and analysed how they discussed them. Found that use was often described as a ‘tool’ for self improvement - denoting self as a project and neoliberal practices. there were also themes showing the negotiation of discourses: psychedelic users rejected the idea of ‘fun’ in place of something more serious - suggesting a sense of morality and ‘responsible use’. Also shows the discourse and how you have to navigate this

Baker, 2023

studied right-wing alternative health influencers promoting conspiracy theories against Covid-19. Found that they used their status as a micro-celebrity and the PSR their followers had with them to establish trust (e.g., ‘you can trust me because you know me'), they talked about censorship and truth (e.g., ‘what they don’t want you to know’), and they framed themselves as part of the journey, doing their own research

Ho et al., 2022

scoping review discussing medical mistrust among women in marginalised communities: shows that there are legitimate concerns for medical mistrust as a result of systemic and social injustices

McNally, 2012

found that alien abductee belief relies on cognitive and cultural factors, media exposure and unusual experiences

cited in Mills, 2004

explanation of Foucault’s ideas on Regimes of Truth:

• power decides what is unacceptable to say/do and who does the saying/who is listened to

• truth/regimes of truth are not fixed: they are produced socially, historically and culturally

Hall, 1997

argued that regimes of truth must be responded to - they can be resisted or incorporated but they are always present

Letcher, 2007

carried out a discourse analysis on psychedelic mushroom use and found that dominant discourses discussed its pathology, psychology and prohibition, showing science as regime or truth, and resistive discourses talked about recreational use, psychedelic use and entheogenic use (spiritual use)

Rose, 2013

argues that science is a regime of truth in Western culture

e.g., Tressoldi et al., 2010

parascientists being involved in discussions of paranormal to give it credibility

Hill, 2017

being ‘scientifical’ - using scientific equipment and measures in ‘experiments’ for ‘ghost hunts’ but they lack scientific rigour and endeavour - not actually using it scientifically

Baker and Bader, 2014

discuss how ‘scientifical’ experiments are carried out - usually using scientific equipment but not in a scientific methodology

Bem, 2011

experiment arguing that precognition was occurring and trying to prove telepathy - but the author was a believer in the paranormal so already had a bias

Thompson, 2014

carried out qualitative interviews with psilocybin mushroom takers and their alternative realities/paranormal experiences. found that people utilised science as a regime of truth and responded to scientific discourse to make sense of what they experienced

Earnshaw and Thompson, forthcoming

study on mediumship and skepticism

Corcoran et al., 2022

study on US citizens found that paranormal beliefs negatively correlate with general vaccine confidence, COVID-19 vaccine confidence and covid-19 vaccine uptake

Jedinger & Siegers, 2026

study of a German sample found a link between right-wing ideology and paranormal beliefs

Roxburgh and Roe, 2014

found that mediumship can help people who have had anomalous childhood experiences and reframe voices in their heads as spirits, allowing them to exert control and reduce distress

Seligman, 2005

found that in El Salvador, mediumship can help to make sense of mental illness and be therapeutic for people - also found in other cultures such as Singapore and Sao Paolo

Osborne and Bacon, 2015

interviews with nine working mediums showed three main themes:

1. ethics and responsibility

2. passion to help

3. therapeutic value of mediumship

however people also stressed the importance of the fact that they weren’t counsellors and should not be seen in that way

Wilde et al., 2019

interviewed 14 mediums and argue that mediums might also need support as they take on clients’ experiences

Bieschel et al., 2014

suggest that mediums could have a complementary role to other therapies in complex grief counselling

Renser & Tiidenberg, 2024

a study into spiritual healing on Facebook argues that it allows for the commodification of spirituality, but also spread of anti vaccination posts for example

Betty, 2005; Irmack, 2014

US and Turkish papers arguing that exorcism can help with MH disorders in healing possession

e.g. Lim et al., 2015

emphasises the importance of incorporating cultural elements into treatment of MH when people think they are possessed - e.g. Jinn possession. important to avoid alienation of patient and accommodate their paranormal explanation, but to maintain a scientific approach

LLoyd et al., 2023

found that demonic aetiologies of mental illness can help patients find meaning in their suffering and enable spiritual coping, BUT it can also discourage access to secular mental health support and lead to stigmatisation and isolation

Cheng, 2017

case study found that a 25 y/o woman from Bangladesh responded well to non-dismissal of Jinn possession explanation, combined with supportive counselling, normalisation of experiences, and psychoeducation - highlights the need for a transcultural approach

Douglas et al., 2019, p. 4

defines conspiracy theories as attempts to explain the causes of social and political events and circumstances by claiming secret plots of two or more actors

Bowes et al., 2023

Claim that the 3 factors of conspiracy theories are:

1. conspirators

2. hidden plans

3. malintent against others or society

1. conspirators

2. hidden plans

3. malcontent against others or society

what are Bowes et al.,’s (2023) 3 factors of conspiracy theories?

Duffy and Dacombe, 2023

Report by King’s College London finding that around 1/3 of the (British) public believe that various conspiracy theories are probably or definitely true

van Prooien, 2022

found that holding conspiracy theories can provide a sense of belonging and community, sense of excitement and purpose

Clarke, 2015

argues that one of the benefits of conspiracy theories is that it challenges powerful groups

Fuller et al., 2022

found that addressing COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy is important in reducing ethnic and racial health disparities

Jetten et al., 2022

found that conspiracy theory beliefs can uncover economic inequalities

Byford, 2011

found that many conspiracy theories demonise certain groups and have racist connotations

Leidig, 2026

paper from Centre for the Study of Organised Hate discusses the Tommy Robinson-led “Unite the Kingdom” Rally and his conspiracy beliefs

Douglas et al., 2019

argue that conspiracy theories do more harm than good

Van Prooijen & Douglas, 2018

describe the 4 key principles of conspiracy theories, saying they are:

1. consequential - have direct consequences on health, interpersonal relations, politics and violence

2. universal - you can see them globally, but specific to the society (e.g., 7/7 attacks, Manchester attack, 9/11 attack)

3. emotional - led by intuitive emotional reasoning, anxiety, and education → fewer conspiracy beliefs

4. social - they rely on us & them ideas, group identity, in- and out-groups

Uscinki & Parent, 2014

found that conspiracy theories had been found in letters to major newsletters from 1890-2010 - present across time

Douglas et al., 2017

explain the 3 social psychological motives that conspiracy theories attempt to satisfy:

1. epistemic - understanding, clarity and accuracy

2. existential - desire for control and security

3. social - desire to maintain a positive self or group image

van Prooijen & Acker, 2017

found that conspiracy belief is heightened when people feel a lack of control over outcomes and reduced when their control is affirmed or reinstated

Grauepner & Coman, 2017

found that experiences of ostracism increase conspiracy theory beliefs

Marie and Peterson, 2022

found that conspiracy belief relies more on in- and out-group status rather than political grouping

McCauley and Jacques, 1979

argued for “consequence-cause matching", where people feel that a cause of an event has to match its consequences. so for example, when there is an assassination of a president, it’s such a big event that surely that can’t just happen, there must be an explanation

van Prooien et al., 2020

there are 2 styles of information processing in social cognition:

• system 1: intuitive

• system 2: analytic

it’s argued both systems are used in conspiracy beliefs

system 1 is argued to explain and support initial belief but system 2 is used in motivated reasoning and can make people believe more strongly that a conspiracy theory is true

Swami et al., 2014

found that manipulating analytic thinking to increase, conspiracy belief decreased

Većkalov et al., 2024

were not able to replicate Swami et al.’s (2014) study that manipulating analytical thinking reduced conspiracy beliefs

O’Mahony et al., 2021

conducted a systematic review on the efficacy of interventions in reducing conspiracy belief

Forberg, 2023

found that QAnon followers all discursively build up an ideology and develop personal truths. their evidence and ideology is all rational to them because of their social context - so we can’t really say that people holding conspiracy beliefs are irrational

‘Behind the Curve’ 2018 series on Netflix

Example of motivated reasoning with flat earther Bob Knodel

Peter McIndoe

Birds Aren’t Real guy

Neville-Shepard and Neville-Shepard, 2024

present some criticisms of the Birds Aren’t Real experiment, suggesting that, whilst t might highlight how they spread, it might play into conspiracy theorists’ hands, and they might argue that the media is trying to make them look stupid, talking about the danger of laughter and othering. argue that it is parodic hypermimesis

where people take the absurdities of modern misinformation and culture and mimic them accurately enough to mirror the phenomena and be seen as real

parodic hypermimesis

DeWildt and Aupers, 2023

looked at r/conspiracy subreddit and found that people don’t only engage in conspiracy discourse if they believe it - also some people just find it fun without taking it seriously

Enders et al., 2021

found that there isn’t a causal relationship between social medua use and conspiracy beliefs, but it does intensify them - basically people will tend to search stuff out more bc they can - and will be influenced by algorithms that leads them more and more into a hole

Jennings et al., 2024

celebrity CT endorsement doesn’t increase conspiracy belief but it does increase likelihood of people sharing them

Cinelli et al., 2022

argues that conspiracy media is a dangerous echo chamber and an issue for concern

Bertolotti & Catellani, 2023

found that getting people to engage in cognitive activity of thinking things through by reading information on a topic is more effective than forewarning - just warning of existence of misinformation

Cookson et al., 2021

found that telling anti-vax parents the social norms of what people believed about vaccines reduced their personal conspiracy beliefs at post-test immediately and 6 months

Jolley et al., 2024

found that positive parasocial contact with trans influencers increased perspective taking

Dylan and Grossfeld, 2025

AI datasets can be manipulated in warfare, misinformation and disinformation through manipulating LLMs

Costello et al., 2024

show that LLMs could be used in debunking conspiracy theories, but don’t show an effect on real-world conspiracy belief and was done in a self-selecting sample so people are probably more likely to be open

Bai et al., 2023; Stadler et al., 2024

effects of GAI on critical thinking

Smith, Sheratt and Spring, 2026

news article on how a woman’s anti-chemo views led to her daughter’s death

Mental Health Foundation, 2019

survey finding 24% of 18-24 year olds were made to worry about bodies after watching reality TV and 23% had suicidal feelings bc of worries over body