MCAT: Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior

Some psychology and sociology terms for the mcat

Weber’s Law

The principle that the just noticeable difference (jnd) of a stimulus is a constant proportion rather than a constant amount. Ex: If you are holding a 10-pound dumbbell, you will likely notice if 1 pound is added (a 10% change). If you are holding a 100-pound barbell, adding 1 pound will be undetectable. You would need to add 10 pounds (still a 10% change) for the difference to feel noticeable.

Parallel processing

The brain's ability to simultaneously analyze and combine separate pieces of visual information (such as colorr, shape, motion, and depth) all at once;

Sensory reception by hair cells

The mechanism where sound waves bend the stereocilia of hair cells on the basilar membrane

Somatosensation

The broad mix of tactile senses including touch

Olfactory cells

Specialized chemoreceptors in the olfactory epithelium that bind specific volatile chemical ligands to trigger a G-protein coupled receptor cascade

Kinesthetic sense

Also known as proprioception: the body's ability to perceive its own movement, weight, and limb positions in space without relying on sight

Bottom-up processing

 Data-driven processing where the brain constructs a mental perception by piecing together individual, raw sensory inputs from the environment starting with no prior expectations

Top-down processing

Concept-driven processing where the brain uses existing knowledge, experiences, and structural expectations to interpret and make sense of incoming sensory information;

Gestalt principles

A set of specific rules describing how the human brain naturally structures and groups ambiguous visual elements into a meaningful patterns, groups, and unified wholes rather than seeing them as isolated parts.

Selective attention

The cognitive process of focusing on one specific stimulus or task while filtering out and ignoring irrelevant background stimuli

Divided attention

The ability to attend to and perform multiple tasks or process multiple streams of information simultaneously, often limited by cognitive capacity

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

A four-stage theory detailing how children construct a mental model of the world: sensorimotor (0–2 years), preoperational (2–7 years), concrete operational (7–11 years), and formal operational (11+ years)

Influence of heredity and environment on cognitive development

The complex interaction where genetic potential sets the baseline range for cognitive development, while environmental enrichment or deprivation determines where a person falls within that range

Heuristics and biases

Mental shortcuts that ease cognitive load but can lead to systematic errors

States of consciousness

The distinct levels of awareness and physiological arousal that an individual experiences, ranging from alertness to deep sleep or drug-induced states

Stages of sleep

The four distinct electroencephalogram (EEG) phases of sleep: Stage 1 (NREM1, theta waves), Stage 2 (NREM2, sleep spindles and K-complexes), Stage 3 (NREM3, slow-wave delta sleep), and REM sleep (paralyzed body, active beta-like brain waves, vivid dreaming)

Sleep cycles and changes to sleep cycles

The predictable 90-minute progression through NREM and REM stages that repeats 4 to 6 times per night, with deep slow-wave sleep dominating the early night and REM sleep lengthening toward the morning

Encoding

The initial process of transforming raw sensory inputs and information into a structural mental representation that can be committed to memory storage

Types of memory storage

The structural layers of memory including sensory memory (extremely brief visual/auditory traces), working memory (active workspace holding roughly 7 items for immediate use), and long-term memory (unlimited, permanent storage)

Retrieval

The process of accessing, bringing forth, and recovering stored information from long-term memory back into conscious working memory

Retrieval cues

Environmental prompts, internal moods, or contextual stimuli that assist in triggering and recovering a specific piece of information from long-term memory storage

Recall

recognition, and relearning, The three primary measures of retention where recall is retrieving information completely from scratch, recognition is identifying previously learned information from a presented list, and relearning is mastering old information faster the second time

The role of emotion in retrieving memories

The phenomenon where emotional intensity enhances memory vividness via amygdala activation, including flashbulb memories and state-dependent retrieval (remembering sad memories more easily when currently sad)

Interference

The phenomenon where different memories compete with and disrupt one another, categorized as proactive (old information blocks the learning of new facts) or retroactive (new information causes you to forget old facts)

Three components of emotion

The distinct dimensions that make up an emotional state: Physiological Response: The involuntary physical changes your body undergoes. This includes altered brain activation, hormonal changes, and nervous system responses (e.g., an increased heart rate, sweating, or muscle tension).Cognitive Component: Your mental assessment and conscious interpretation of a situation. This includes the personal meaning you assign to an event, your memories, and your expectations. Behavioral Component: The outward expression of the emotion. This involves your body language, facial expressions, tone of voice, and physical actions

Universal emotions

The seven distinct facial expressions that are recognized and expressed across all human cultures regardless of upbringing:  fear, anger, happiness, surprise, contempt, disgust, and sadness

James-Lange theory

A theory of emotion stating that a physiological response occurs first, and the conscious experience of emotion is our subsequent cognitive interpretation of that specific bodily arousal

Cannon-Bard theory

A theory of emotion asserting that a triggering stimulus causes a physiological response and a conscious, subjective experience of emotion simultaneously and independently

Schachter-Singer theory

Also known as the two-factor theory, stating that an emotional experience requires both physiological arousal and a subsequent, conscious cognitive label applied to that arousal based on environmental context

Brain regions involved in emotion

Key structures including the amygdala (fear, aggression, emotional processing), prefrontal cortex (emotional regulation, decision-making), and hypothalamus (governing the physiological markers of emotion)

limbic system

The brain regions that constitute this system are:

Limbic cortex. Cingulate gyrus. Parahippocampal gyrus.

Hippocampal formation. Includes the dentate gyrus, Hippocampus, Subicular Complex, Amygdala, Septal area, and the Hypothalamus.

Cognitive Appraisal Theory

The Lazarus theory of emotion states that our emotional experience is directly determined by how we evaluate or interpret a situation. We don't just react to an event; our brain first assesses its significance to our well-being, which then triggers the specific emotion.

Forebrain

The largest and most complex region of the brain containing the cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, and limbic system, responsible for advanced intellectual, emotional, and executive functions

Midbrain

A small brain region above the hindbrain containing the superior colliculus (visual reflexes) and inferior colliculus (auditory reflexes) that acts as a relay station for sensory and motor information

Hindbrain

The evolutionarily older division of the brain consisting of the medulla oblongata, pons, and cerebellum, responsible for managing vital autonomic functions and motor coordination

The Endocrine System

A network of glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream to regulate physiology, including the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid, adrenal glands, pancreas, and gonads

Effects of the endocrine system on behavior

The modulation of mood and actions via systemic hormones, such as oxytocin driving social bonding, cortisol managing stress responses, and testosterone or estrogen altering aggression and mating behaviors

Interaction between heredity and environmental influences

The principle that nature and nurture do not act independently but interact, where environmental triggers can determine whether or to what extent certain genetic traits are phenotypically expressed

Regulatory genes

Non-coding genetic sequences and epigenetic mechanisms (like DNA methylation) that control the expression of structural genes, directly altering neurotransmitter pathways and behavior without changing the underlying genetic code

Prenatal development

The highly structured three-stage biological sequence of growth in the womb: the germinal stage (zygote formation and implantation), the embryonic stage (organogenesis), and the fetal stage (rapid growth and neurological development)

Psychoanalytic perspective

Freud’s personality theory asserting that behavior is driven by unconscious conflicts between ancestral urges (id), moral ideals (superego), and reality-focused defense mechanisms (ego)

Humanistic perspective

A personality theory championed by Rogers and Maslow that focuses on free will, self-actualization, human potential, and the continuous growth of a healthy, integrated self-concept

Trait perspective

A personality framework focused on identifying, measuring, and categorizing stable, lifelong behavioral predispositions, best exemplified by the Big Five traits (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism)

Social cognitive perspective

 Bandura's personality theory emphasizing reciprocal determinism, where behavioral choices, internal cognitive thoughts, and environmental contexts continuously influence and shape one another

Biological perspective

The viewpoint that personality characteristics are heavily dictated by an individual's genetic inheritances, unique brain structures, and baseline neurotransmitter levels

Behaviorist perspective

Skinner’s theory, known as operant conditioning, dictates that behaviors are shaped and maintained by their consequences, specifically through reinforcements and punishments.

Instinct motivation

The biological theory that human behaviors are unlearned, fixed patterns of action driven by evolutionary programming to maximize survival

Arousal motivation

The theory stating that individuals are motivated to perform actions in order to maintain their own personally optimal level of physiological alertness and excitement

Drive reduction theory

Hull's motivational theory stating that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need and reduce the unpleasant tension

Incentive theory

A theory of motivation asserting that behavior is pulled and driven by external rewards, recognition, or environmental stimulants rather than internal homeostatic need

Components of attitudes

The ABC framework consisting of the affective component (emotional feelings toward an object), the behavioral component (actions taken regarding it), and the cognitive component (beliefs and knowledge held about it)

Cognitive dissonance theory

Festinger's theory stating that holding two conflicting cognitions creates psychological discomfort, motivating the individual to change their attitude, alter their behavior, or rationalize the discrepancy

Social facilitation

 The tendency for the presence of an audience to enhance performance on simple or well-rehearsed tasks, but impair performance on complex, unfamiliar tasks

Deindividuation

A loss of self-awareness and personal responsibility that occurs in large, high-arousal crowds, leading to uncharacteristic, impulsive, or destructive group behaviors

Bystander effect

The social phenomenon where an individual is statistically less likely to offer help to a victim when other observers are present, driven by the diffusion of responsibility

Social loafing

The tendency for individuals to exert less physical or mental effort when working collectively in a group toward a shared goal than when they are individually accountable

Group polarization

The tendency for group discussion to strengthen and shift the pre-existing attitudes of its members toward a more extreme version of their initial positions

Groupthink

A dysfunctional group decision-making process where the intense desire for harmony and conformity leads members to self-censor dissenting opinions, resulting in flawed, irrational outcomes

Sanctions

The rewards (positive sanctions) or punishments (negative sanctions) used by a society to enforce social norms and maintain structural order

Folkways mores and taboos

Three levels of social norms where folkways are casual everyday etiquettes, mores are strictly enforced moral and ethical rules, and taboos are deeply held, repulsive social prohibitions

Anomie

Durkheim's concept of social instability and normlessness, occurring when a society's traditional norms break down and individuals lose their sense of collective purpose or moral direction

Strain Theory

A sociological and criminological concept suggesting that pressure, frustration, or "strain" derived from social factors (like poverty, discrimination, or blocked opportunities) drives individuals to commit crimes or engage in deviant behavior as a coping mechanism

Classical conditioning

A form of associative learning where a neutral stimulus becomes linked with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a learned, involuntary physiological response

Neutral conditioned and unconditioned stimuli

Type of triggering inputs where an unconditioned stimulus automatically sparks a natural response, a neutral stimulus initially sparks nothing, and a conditioned stimulus is the formerly neutral trigger that now sparks the learned response;

Conditioned and unconditioned response

The two resulting behaviors where the unconditioned response is an innate, natural reflex to a stimulus, and the conditioned response is the learned, identical reflex sparked by the newly associated conditioned stimulus

Classical conditioning

The progression of learning states including acquisition (binding the stimuli), extinction (fading of the response when the trigger is presented alone), spontaneous recovery (sudden return of an extinct response after a rest period), generalization (responding to similar triggers), and discrimination (responding only to the exact trigger)

Operant conditioning

A form of associative learning where the frequency of a voluntary behavior is modified, increased, or decreased using consequences like reinforcements or punishments

Types of reinforcement

Consequences that increase behavior: positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus, negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus, primary reinforcement leverages an innate biological reward (like food), and conditional reinforcement leverages a learned reward (like money)

Mirror neurons

Specialized frontal and parietal lobe neurons that fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else performing that same action, providing a biological foundation for empathy and imitation

Elaboration likelihood model

A persuasion framework stating that attitudes are formed or changed via two distinct pathways: the central route (deep, logical analysis of message content) or the peripheral route (superficial focus on speaker attractiveness, catchphrases, or prestige)

Social cognitive theory

Bandura's learning model asserting that human behavior is shaped by a continuous, dynamic interaction between personal cognitive factors, environmental influences, and observational modeling

Front-stage vs back-stage self

Goffman's dramaturgical concept where the front-stage self is the polished, controlled persona crafted to impress an audience, while the back-stage self is the private, uninhibited persona maintained when free from social scrutiny

Inclusive fitness

An evolutionary metric evaluating an organism's success based on the number of offspring it produces plus the number of offspring its close genetic relatives can support

Microsociology vs macrosociology

The two scales of social analysis where microsociology studies small-scale, face-to-face individual interactions, while macrosociology examines massive social structures, institutions, and population-wide systems

Functionalism

A macrosociological perspective viewing society as a complex machine made of interconnected institutions working collaboratively to maintain dynamic equilibrium and social stability

Conflict theory

A Marxist macrosociological framework asserting that society is a continuous struggle for dominance and scarce resources between powerful ruling classes and oppressed working classes

Exchange-rational choice theory

A behavioral framework asserting that individuals make logical, self-interested decisions designed to maximize personal rewards while minimizing costs in every social interaction

Culture lag

The sociological phenomenon where non-material culture (values, laws, and ethics) adapts slowly and struggles to keep pace with rapid advancements in material culture and technology

Transmission and diffusion

The spreading of culture where transmission is the vertical passing of cultural elements down from one generation to the next within a society, and diffusion is the horizontal spreading of cultural traits across completely different societies or groups

Cultural capital and social capital

Two forms of non-financial assets where cultural capital consists of the non-monetary social assets that promote social mobility (such as education, speech patterns, or dress), and social capital consists of the economic and social benefits gained from one's valuable social networks and connections

Vertical and horizontal mobility

Two directions of social class movement. Horizontal mobility is changing jobs or locations without altering your socioeconomic status or rank. Vertical mobility, however, involves moving up or down the socioeconomic ladder