AQA Psychology Paper 1 Names and Researchers

Isabella et al

High levels of interactional synchrony gave a higher chance of high quality attachment

Meltzoff and Moore

Showed interactional synchrony in babies as young as 2 weeks, through mimicking 2 out of 3 facial expressions from caregivers

Feldman

Defined and research reciprocity and interactional synchrony

Reciprocity- where each person responds to another and elicits a response

found that babies have periodic alert phases where they signal for reciprocity, and this increases in frequency from 3 months old

Interactional synchrony- where caregiver and infant interact in such a way that they mirror each other

Schaffer and Emerson

Found that 50% of babies develop an attachment to a primary caregiver between 25-32 weeks (implied through showing separation anxiety)

By 40 weeks 80% had a specific attachment and 30% started to form multiple attachments

Schaffer

Developed the 4 stages of attachment

- asocial, indiscriminate, specific, multiple

Grossmann et al

Longitudinal study found that fathers have a more play role and the quality of attachment to the father linked to quality of adolescent attachments

Field et al

Observational study found that primary caregiver fathers spent the same time as primary caregiver mothers holding, smiling and imitating the baby, more so than a secondary caregiver mother or father

Lorenz

Imprinting in geese lead to an attachment to the first moving object they saw, which must occur within a critical period (or else it won't occur at all) and could result in sexual imprinting

Harlow

Found that baby rhesus monkeys spent more time with the cloth monkey than the wire monkey regardless of who provided food, suggesting that attachments form from an innate need for creature comfort not just food

Regaling and Vallortigara

Found that chicks imprinted on moving shapes after hatching, supporting Lorenz's theory of imprinting

Howe (1998)

suggested that Harlow's research is important as it helped social workers and clinical psychologists understand the lack of bonding experience may be a risk factor in child development allowing them to intervein to prevent poor outcomes.

Dollard and Miller

Suggest that attachment can be formed through learning theory as the baby associates the caregiver with food, and that reinforcement leads to both parent and baby forming an attachment

Sears et al (1957)

Attachment becomes a secondary drive through its association with the elimination of hunger and fulfilling the primary drive for food

Bowlby

An evolutionary theory of attachment suggesting that attachment is an innate system that gives a survival advantage

Bailey et al

99 mother study, found that attachment to primary caregiver influences a persons attachment to their own child, supporting the idea of the internal working model in attachments

Brazelton et al

Babies become distressed when adults ignore their social releasors

Ainsworth

Strange situation, developed 3 attachment types

Ainsworth et al (1978)

94% inter observer reliability for the strange situation research

Main and Solomon

Found that Ainsworth missed Type D (insecure-disorganised) attachment in the original study

Van Ijzendoorn et al (1999)

15% of infants are classified as Type D attachment

Takahashi

Insecure-resistant rates higher in Japan but this is seen as the more desirable attachment type

Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonberg

Meta analysis of Strange Situation studies across 8 different countries

- secure was most common overall, resistant was the least common

- variation within cultures was 150% greater than between cultures

Simonelli et al (2014)

Found an increase in avoidant attachment types, which is suggested to be a result of increased female presence in the workforce

Bowlby (1944)

Prolonged early separation from the mother can lead to affectionless psychopathy and intellectual issues

Goldfarb

Research into maternal deprivation may be flawed as a result of confounding variables such as trauma, suggesting the theory has a poor base evidence quality

Levy et al

Separating rats from their mother can have serious consequences for social development, supporting the theory of maternal deprivation

Rutter

Maternal privation is more serious than maternal deprivation as no attachment forms at all

Koluchova

The critical period may be more of a sensitive period as the Czech twin were able to "overcome" their abuse and be "normal teenagers" despite severe neglect and deprivation

Rutter (ERA)

Found that Romanian orphans adopted after the age of 6 months had delayed intellectual and cognitive abilities as a result of the institutionalisation, and showed evidence of a disinhibited attachment style

Zeanah et al

Children aged 12-31 months old attachment styles were vastly different to a control group who had never lived in care

- only 19% had a secure attachment (vs 74% control) and 44% had disinhibited attachment (vs less than 20% control)

Langdon

Understanding the effects of living in care and institutions gives us a greater ability to improve the care system (institutionalisation evaluation)

Myron-Wilson and Smith

Type A children more likely to be victims of bullying, Type C children more likely to be bullies

Kerns

Insecurely attached babies have friendship difficulties and securely attached babies form the best quality attachments

McCarthy

Found that women who had secure attachments had the best quality friendships and relationships, whereas Type C had formation problems and Type A had intimacy issues

Hazen and Shaver

Love quiz assessing current relationships, general experiences and attachment in childhood found that Type B had god long lasting relationships but Type A had high jealousy and fears of intimacy

Fearon and Roisman

Early attachment consistently predicts later attachment, emotional wellbeing and attachment to own children

Becker-Stoll et al

The extent to which early attachment predicts later lie outcomes is not clear and other factors may be involved

Clark and Clark

The research on the effects of attachment on later life is probabilistic and nothing is set in stone

Aronson

Defined conformity as a change in a person's behaviour or opinions as a result of real or imagined pressure from a person or group

Asch

Investigated conformity and found that 75% conformed at least once, with 36.8% conforming to an obviously incorrect answer

Lucas et al

Participants conformed to the wrong answer in a maths quiz due to the ambiguity of the question and the belief that the other participants were correct

Zimbardo

Stanford Prison Experiment- participants conformed to their social roles (even if the roles go against moral views) largely as a result of situational factors

Reicher and Haslam

Social identity theory is a better explanation for why people conform to social roles

Milgram

Ordinary people are likely to obey authority, which can lead to inhumane behaviour

Orne and Holland

Lack of internal validity in Milgram's study as they didn't believe in the set up if the experiment

Sheridan and King

Same study as Milgram, but used puppies instead of people, and really shocked them, males 54% obedient, females 100%

Haslam

Alternative explanations suggest that participants in Milgram's study obeyed due to identifying with the scientific aims of the study (as they consistently disobeyed if they were prompted 4 times)

Hofling et al

21 of 22 nurses obey orders from an unknown doctor even if it meant breaking several rules

Bickman

Participants 2x more likely to obey a security guard compared to a milkman or person in a suit

Meeus and Raajmakers

90% of participants obeyed orders to say stressful things to a person in an interview who was desperate for a job

When the person giving the orders was not present, obedience dropped drastically

Smith and Bond

There aren't enough studies in cultures different to in Milgram's study to be able to claim universality

Blass and Schmitt

Found students attributed the 'blame' to the experimenter in Milgram's study rather than the teacher. Supporting agentic shift. Also supports legitimacy of authority -students explained this was because the experimenter was an 'expert'.

Tarnow

Excessive dependence on a captains expertise in plane crashes, authority wasn't questioned even if the approach was seen as risky

Rank and Jacobsen

16/18 nurses disobeyed doctors orders and remained autonomous, even though the doctor was a legitimate authority figure

Adorno et al

Developed the F-scale based on the unconscious racial views of 2000 white American men, which is used to measure the authoritarian personality

Milgram and Elms

Obedient participants from Milgram's original study scored higher on the F scale than less obedient participants

Christie and Jahoda

F scale is politically biased towards right wing views and ignores left wing authoritarianism e.g. Maoism or Bolshevism

Rotter

Studied locus of control

Albrecht et al

Having social support from a slightly older buddy helped reduce smoking in pregnant teens compared to a control

Gamson et al

88% of participants rebelled when asked to gather evidence to run a smear campaign for an oil company in small groups

Holland

37% of internal LoC vs 27% of external LoC did not continue to the highest shock level in Milgram's study

Moscovici et al

8.4% agreement on slide colour in consistent minority groups compared to 1.25% in an inconsistent minority

Wood et al

Meta analysis of 100 studies similar to Moscovici and found that consistent minorities were more influential than inconsistent minorities

Martin et al

PPTs given a viewpoint, shown either a minority or majority agreeing with it, then exposed to a conflicting viewpoint

- those who heard the minority agree with the original statement were less likely to agree with the conflicting statement

Nolan et al

PPTs who received a normative message on energy usage reduced their energy more than a control group

Foxcroft et al

Reviewed social norms interventions and found that their use had little effect on frequency and quantity of alcohol consumption by students

Nemeth

Social change is due to the type of thinking that minorities inspire as it encourages divergent thinking which leads to more creative solutions

Mackie

Social change occurs due to the majority opposition rather than minorities encouraging deeper processing

Baddeley

- Short term memory codes acoustically and long term memory codes semantically

- developed the working memory model of short term memory

Jacobs

9.3 digit capacity for short term memory, 7.3 letter capacity

Miller

Short term memory has a capacity of 7 +/- 2

Peterson and Peterson

Short term memory has a duration of up to 20-30 seconds

Bahrick et al

Long term memory has a potentially lifetime duration

Atkinson and Schiffrin

Multistore model of memory

Shallice and Warrington

Case study of patient KF who had a poor STM for digits when received acoustically but better when he read them himself

KF was able to remember visual images but not sounds in the STM

Tulving

Proposed three types of LTM (episodic, procedural, semantic)

- found brain scan evidence to support the separation, as episodic is in the right prefrontal cortex and semantic is in the left

Belleville et al

Memory training techniques used to train the episodic memory in older people with mild cognitive impairments, with the experimental group showing a much greater improvement than the control

Baddeley and Hitch

Working memory model

Baddeley et al

2x visual or 2x verbal tasks had lower performance than dual tasks (one of each)

Eslinger and Damasio

Patient EVR had impaired decision making but was able to reason (both proposed functions of the central executive)

McGeoch and McDonald

Increased similarity increased the likelihood of retroactive interference

Baddeley and Hitch (interference)

Rugby players who had played in more matches had lower levels of recall when asked to recall every team they had played against

Tulving and Psotka

Recall decreased as information load increased, but once participants were informed of the different categories of information recall rose

Tulving and Thompson

If a cue is to be helpful it must be present at the time of encoding and the time of retrieval (encoding specificity principle)

Godden and Baddeley

Participants learnt word lists on ground or underwater, recall was best if the conditions were the same as during learning, 40% lower if conditions did not match

Carter and Cassaday

Participants learnt word lists either whilst on antihistamines or not, recall was significantly worse if the recall condition did not match the learning condition

Loftus and Palmer

When participants were asked about the speed of the car in a collision, the answer increased if the question was more leading (e.g. using more violent adjectives to describe the crash)

Gabbert et al

71% of participants mistakenly recalled information they couldn't possibly have seen due to camera angles as a result of post event discussion

Skagerberg and Wright

Participants showed PPTs film clips, each with a different hair colour, after post event discussion the PPTs reported the hair colour as a mix of different options

Sutherland and Hayne

When participants were asked misleading questions after watching a video clip, recall was more accurate for central details than peripheral details

Johnson and Scott

Weapons focus effect and tunnel theory meant that recall was lower in a high anxiety (heard an argument, saw a knife (33%)) than a low anxiety condition (heard a conversation, saw a pen (49%))

Yuille and Cutshall

Shooting witnesses interviewed 4-5 months after event and asked to judge stress levels, recall was higher when stress levels were high (88% vs 75%)

Deffenbacher

Applied Yerkes-Dodson Law to EWT as low anxiety=low recall, extreme anxiety=low recall

Christiansen and Hubinette

Recall of details about bank robberies was ~75%, increased as the witnesses became more "involved"

Pickel

Recall was higher in unusual situations due to surprise rather than fear, which could mean the weapons focus effect is less relevant than previously assumed

Valentine and Mesout

London dungeon study. Anxiety levels measured using heart rate monitor. High anxiety was associated with reporting fewer correct descriptors of the target. Concluded that being highly anxious reduces the accuracy of eyewitnesses in identifying perpetrators

Fisher et al

Developed the cognitive interview and the enhanced cognitive interview

Köhnken et al

combined data from 50 studies, the enhanced CI consistently provided more correct info than the standard interview

Kebell and Wagstaff

Many police forces do not have the time or funds to be able to train people for the cognitive interview

Rosenhan and Seligman

A person becomes abnormal when they can no longer cope with the demands of everyday life

- lack of conformity to interpersonal rules, severe personal distress, irrational and/or dangerous to self and others, unable to maintain friendships and jobs