Ethics Exam 1

Lectures 1- 8

Logic

the systematic study of arguments in order to determine whether they are good or bad. The means by which we figure out the truth.

Logical analysis steps

1. Identification

2. Assessment

Argument

a series of claims organized in an effort to defend a position on an issue.

Argument requirements

one premise, one conclusion, not necessarily multiple parties

Premise

claim that supports a position on an issue, indicated by “because” or “since”

Conclusion

a claim supported by premise(s) that states position, indicated by “thus” or “as a result”

Identification (deductive)

Deductive. A conclusion is thought to necessarily follow given the form of the argument itself. The premises prove or demonstrate the conclusion.

Assessment (deductive)

• validity

• soundness

Validity

A deductive argument is valid if it is not possible for the conclusion to be false assuming the premise(s) are true, even if they aren’t.

Soundness

A deductive argument is sound if it is valid AND all premises are true.

Identification (Inductive)

A conclusion is thought to be supported, but not proved, by the premise(s). The premises make the conclusion more likely, but not certain.

Assessment (inductive)

• strength

• cogency

Strength

an argument is strong if the premise(s), when assumed to be true, make the conclusion significantly more likely.

Cogency

an inductive argument is cogent if it is strong AND all premises are true.

Argument by analogy

An inductive argument that suggests that because two things are similar in one respect, they must be similar in all/or most others.

Fallacies

mistakes in reasoning, which can indicate a bad argument. (not all fallacies are related to arguments)

Ad Hominen

a personal attack rather than an argument against a position

Straw man

Intentionally exaggerating a person’s belief so it is easier to refute.

False dilema

Options are reduced to two (or less than the real number) possibilities, when, in reality, other options are there.

Ancient Era: Areas of Study

No particular areas of focus

Ancient Era: Figures

Pre-Socrates (ex: Pythagorus), Paramendies, Herclitus, the Buddha, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Thalies (Father of Philosophy).

Medieval Era Areas of Focus

primarily christianity and religion focused. What is God? What proof is there? What is God’s essence?

Modern Era Areas of Focus

more objective, less (but still, arguably) religious. Metaphysics and epistemology.

Epistemology

What do we know and how? What makes something concrete enough to “know”?

Metaphysics

What exists? What is real? Does the “mind” exist?

Modern Era Prominent Figures

René Descartes, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, John Stuart Mill, Fredrich Nietzchice.

Contemporary Era Areas of Focused

Analytic and continental

Analytic

WE are the issues that we create. Fix language and thinking/logic and you fix your problems. Primarily western.

Continental

philosophical problems will hapen no matter what. Why do they happen? (existentialism) Primarily non-western.

Contemporary Era Prominent Figures

Jean-Paul Sarte, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Martin Heiddegger, Albert Camus, and Jaques Derrida

Ethics

What is evil? What is the nature of morality? Where does morality come from—God, constructs, etc.? Right actions vs. wrong.

Morality vs. Science

Prescriptive vs. descriptive statements. Morality: How should it be? Science: How is it currently?

Normative Ethics

Ethical theory + applied ethics

Ethical Theory

What should we do theoretically? General principles dictate what we should or should not do. Ex: utilitarianism and deontology.

Applied Ethics

What should we do in practice? Specific practical solutions. Ex: business or medical ethics

Meta-ethics

What is the nature of moral claims? More naturalistic account of ethics, describes how things are in the realm of moral philosophy and judgement.

What do we mean by moral claim? What is the nature of such a claim? How, if possible, can we defend it? What is indicative of morality?

Morality

concerns beliefs about right and wrong actions and good and bad people or character.

Moral norms

standards in the form of moral judgements, principles, rules, or theories.

Impartial

Apply to everyone equally. Equal moral worth and weight.

Overridingness

moral norms have a stronger hold than non-moral norms, and, therefore, can cause us to override them.

Universal

Apply in every situation that is relevantly similar to another. Morality demands consistency.

Reason-driven

moral judgements are supported by good reason.

Critical thinking

The corrective of feelings which are products of psychological needs, culture, and motivation.

Conscience

conditioned by upbringing, culture, etc. Can be the result of irrelevant influences and, therefore, not an infallible indicator of moral truth.

Norms of Obligation

obligatory conduct or duty, (generally) determine moral worth of actions

Norms of Value

estimations of moral worth, good or bad? Generally determine the moral worth of people, their character, and their motives

Right— Permissable

An action is allowed

Right— Obligatory

an action is wrong NOT to preform

Supererogatory

Not required, above and beyond

Melville’s view of Human Nature

• Injustice is inherent to life

there is always undeniable evil in the world, that often triumphs over the innocent and good

Billy Budd

A "handsome sailor" who strikes and inadvertently kills his false accuser, Master-at-arms John Claggart. The ship's Captain, Edward Vere, recognizes Billy's lack of intent, but claims that the law of mutiny requires him to sentence Billy to be hanged. Represents a loss of innocence.

Morality vs. Legality

Is there an obligation to uphold the law even when, morally, it might be wrong? What constitutes changing the law?

The Brothers Karamazov: Ivan

The problem of evil

Traditional conception of God (omniscient, omnipotent, and just) + Existence of evil

Ivan’s conclusion

Either:

No God, or

God cannot be all-knowing, all-powerful, AND all-loving.

Attempts to Reconcile the Problem of Evil

1. Evil is necessary to appreciate good

2. Evil is an unfortunate consequence of God given free will

3. Human beings have limited intelligence and, thus, cannot understand what God does, and apparent evils might prove necessary in God’s plan.

Sophie’s Choice

“The tragedy of moral choice when all options are unacceptable”

Moral Responsibility in Sophie’s Choice

Does she become an active participant in the harm of one of her children by choosing one to live and one to die, even when she is not the one actually putting them in the harmful situation? Would she be MORE responsible for not choosing?

Negative Responsibility

Not making a choice is a choice in itself

Beliefs of Thomas Hobbes

• fear dominates life

• social contract

• monarchy but no divine right of the kings (idea that monarchs are chosen by God and should not be held accountable to any earthly authority

• psychological egoism

• strong punishment

Psychological Egoism

self interest and gratification

The State of Nature

Anarchy, marked by fear

• no security, industry, culture, navigation, imported commodities, buildings or large scale works, knowledge for its own sake, society, or civilization.

• “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short”

Essential Equality

everyone is equal in the State of Nature and has a right to self-preservation, everyone fears death

Right to Everything

freedom or liberty to do anything without consequences (without means)

Hobbes beliefs about security;freedom

ALL security, very little freedom is necessary

Natural Sources of Conflict

Competition: limited resources, motivated by gain

Diffidence: fear leads to preemptive aggression, motivated by security

Glory: wants recognition of power, motivated by reputation

Emergence of Civilization and Government

the state of nature is in the best interest of no one, self-interest leads to social contract. consents to sovereign which means forfeiting the right to everything.

Emergence of Ethics

• No right or wrong in the state of nature. — force and fraud are good because they are essential for survival

• Morality emerges after social contract

Moral Conventionalism

morality is indicative of free choice and social institutions and not innate.

Egoism

morality stems from need—self-interest

Everything “good” done benefits the one doing it. Morality=life preserver

Right

the freedom to do something

Law

a rule discovered by reason that one must follow in an effort to attain something

First law of nature

Right to everything, no security, fear of war is unwarranted.

Second law

give up right to everything

Third law

abide by social contract

The Caveat to the Laws of Nature

• others must be willing to also forfeit rights

• one is always allowed to do whatever needs to be done for self-preservation

Purposes of morality

• enabling one to reach goals in socially acceptable ways

• enabling fair conflict of interest resolutions

• developing positive character

• promoting happiness and flourishing/diminish suffering

• enabling survival of society

• assign praise and reward, blame and punishment

Pojman on Hobbes

Morality offers a form of social control, which reflects our rational and egoistic nature

Rules of morality: “if followed by nearly everyone, will promote the flourishing of nearly everyone.”

Pojman’s Claims

• Morality is a necessary condition for happiness

• the goal of morality is to create happy and virtuous people and flourishing communities

Lord of the Flies

• painted faces symbolize return to savagery and freedom from conventional obligations— essentially equal.

• Partly a response to The Coral Island

• Hobbes’ sources of conflict are present

Empiricist

believes all knowledge is experience and sensation of external world

Rational

certain ideas, like mathematical truths, are inherent in human mind from inception. knowledge comes from reason

Political Influence

founding fathers’ government: sound laws, impartial judges, enforcing laws

State of Nature (John Locke)

• equality

• nothing stops anyone from doing whatever they want except natural empathy and rational capacity

• a “state of nature” NOT a “state of license”

• respect towards others

• when survival is not at stake, people will try to protect mankind, not just themselves

Justification of Harm

right to enforce natural sense of justice

• exercising of restraint, especially via punishment to prevent future harm

• pursuit of reparations for past grievances or for damage done

Purpose of Government

• Locke recognizes that there are issues with having individuals involved in violations administer punishment and justice

• Governments help ensure fairness in the assessment of transgressions of natural law

Government Corruption

biases can still pervade governments, especially monarchies because governments are still administered by individuals.

• with respect to a corrupt monarchy, “much better it is in the state of nature” (Locke)

Social Contract Theory

• consent of the majority, majority rules

  • “every man puts himself under an obligation to submit to the determination of majority”

Reason for Social Contract

preserve property (to Locke—life, liberty, and material possessions

Why is the state of nature inadequate?

• struggle to be impartial

• no impartial judges

• not always an ability to enforce natural law

Limits of Government

Consent of the governed must be continued

• people can and should rebel is the government fails to attend to their interest, the reason for their initial consent

• best safeguard against abuse of power is clearly stated rules and laws

Hobbes vs. Locke

Hobbes:

• human beings have a constant disposition to fight

• endow the sovereign with absolute power is necessary to ensure individuals will remain faithful to the contract

Locke:

• optimistic view of human nature

• natural sense of justice

• one enters the social contract for their own interest

St. Thomas Aquinas and Natural Law Theory

• Aristotle’s philosophy with a Christian theology

• God is unnecessary to arrive at the NLT principles, rational means only (excluding creation)

Aristotle’s Influence

“the good life”

Eternal Law

the type of Divine Wisdom as directing all actions and movements

stems from God and reflects underlying order and purpose

• all things naturally pursue what is good for them

• everything partakes in eternal law

Natural Law

element of Eternal Law that humans can discern via reason that tells how to flourish

the way human beings come to know eternal law. how we become aware of good and evil

Divine Law

element of Eternal law that humans can discover by way of revelation (ex: holy texts) that tells how to flourish

Human law

A rule or regulation stipulated by the government or another authoritive power

The Good Life

natural inclination to things that are good, including:

• preserving life

• procreation

• knowledge

• sociability

Why is there evil?

Aquinas attributes this to ignorance and emotion—people who fail to do whats right either haven’t reflected enough or are over-powered by emotions