AP PSYCH EXAM all vocab terms

case study

study of one individual in great detail

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment, serves as a comparison

correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, how well either factor predicts the other.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

critical thinking

comparing what you already know with the information you are given in order to decide whether you agree with it

debriefing

the ethical principle in which participants must be fully informed of the nature of the study after participating in research

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

double blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are not aware whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.

experiment

a research method which manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect, can be generalized

experimental group

the group that is exposed to the treatment in an experiment

experimenter bias

a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results

falsifiability

if we claim something is scientifically true, we must be able to specify what evidence it would take to prove it wrong

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it 'i knew it all along'

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

hypothesis

An educated guess

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

inferential statistics

numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance

informed consent

an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

mean

the average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution when organized in order

meta-analysis

a "study of studies" that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations

normal curve

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes distribution. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

operational definitions

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables

peer reviews

The evaluation of scientific, academic, or professional work by others in the same field to ensure its quality and validity

percentile rank

the percentage of scores below a specific score in a distribution of scores

placebo

stimulus which has a positive mental effect but no physical effect

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an placebo

qualitative research

research focused on opinions and non numerical data

quantitative research

research that collects and reports data in numerical form

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of getting chosen for an experiment

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

scatter plot

A graph with points plotted to show a possible relationship between two sets of data.

self report bias

bias when people report their own behavior inaccurately

single blind procedure

research design in which participants don't know whether they are in the experimental or control group

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

social desirability bias

A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

survey

a qualitative method used to record opinions

theory

A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

variable

A factor that can change in an experiment

personality

an individual's unique and relatively stable patterns of behaviors, characteristics, thoughts, and emotions

consciousness

our sense and awareness of reality

unconscious

beyond our awareness

preconscious

bringing thoughts to our conscious awareness with effort

ID (pleasure principle)

works in the unconscious mind and has the goal of immediately satisfying impulses

ego (reality principle)

works in the conscious and unconsciousness, considers satisfying the primitive needs

superego

works in the preconscious and unconscious, the moral levels of right or wrong, a person's conscience

defense mechanisms

theorized by Freud, distort or transform urges to protect itself from anxiety and unwanted knowledge, produced by competing superego and ID

repression

defense mechanism, reducing anxiety by blocking impulses from the consciousness

regression

defense mechanism, reducing anxiety by reverting to an earlier period of development

displacement

defense mechanism, aggressive urges are shifted towards an innocent recipient

projection

defense mechanism, anxiety producing feelings are repressed and placed on another person

denial

defense mechanism, refusal of the ego to accept the reality of a situation

reaction formation

defense mechanism, transform an unacceptable urge into it's opposite

rationalization

defense mechanism, creates excuses to justify an unacceptable impulse

sublimation

defense mechanism, channeling an unacceptable urge into something with social value

projective tests

attempts to reveal the contents of the unconscious by getting people to verbally express issues in response to an ambiguous image

reciprocal determinism

a person's behavior, environment, and personal factors interact to determine behavior

self efficacy

the degree to which a person thinks their efforts will result in a desired outcome

self esteem

one's overall sense of personal value and self worth

big five factor model OCEAN

model test continuum to determine personality traits/levels, openness, conscietiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

longitudinal studies

studying the same individuals over time, help identify long term trends

cross sectional studies

studying different groups of people of various ages at the same point of time

teratogens

substances that can harm fetal development like drugs, infections, and radiation

maternal illness

illnesses or infections a mother gets that can have negative effects on the developing fetus

genetic mutations

mutations that are inherited that can cause birth defects

grasping

reflex causing baby to curl fingers

rooting

reflex causing baby to turn face toward the feeling

sucking

reflex causing sucking to anything in the mouth

moro

reflex causing the baby to have a feeling of falling

stepping

reflex attempting to make steps

babinski

reflex causing splaying of toes

gross motor coordination

voluntary movement and coordination of the large muscles to perform full body movements

fine motor skills

coordination of small muscle movements

sensitive period

long period where attachment forms

critical period

specific time window during which a physical, emotional, or social milestone is developed that won’t happen at a later date

imprinting

attachment to a mother like figure to the first moving object seen at birth

puberty

period where preteens and teens reach physical maturity and acquire the ability to reproduce

gender

social construction of roles for males and females

sexuality

physical and biological differences between male and female

stages of cognitive development

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

object permanence

the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can’t be seen or touched

pretend play

children acting out scenarios or situations using their imagination

parallel play

children play alongside each other without directly interacting

zone of proximal developement

the range between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance

scaffolding

teaching method where a knowledgeable person provides support, gradually reducing assistance

grammar

rules for combining words into phrases or sentences

syntax

set of rules that govern the structure of sentences

semantics

the meaning of words or sentences

phonemes

small distinctive sound unit, pronunciation of sounds

morphemes

smallest unit that carries meaning