AP Psychology Unit 2: Cognition

Cognition

Mental activities involved in thinking, knowing, remembering, and problem-solving

Prototype

A mental image or best example of a category

Algorithm

Step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution

Heuristic

Mental shortcut used to make quick judgments or decisions

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging likelihood based on stereotypes or similarity to a prototype

Availability Heuristic

Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind

Anchoring Heuristic

Relying too heavily on the first piece of information received

Affect Heuristic

Making decisions based on emotions rather than logic

Mental Set

Tendency to approach problems using methods that worked before

Functional Fixedness

Inability to see new uses for familiar objects

Sunk Cost Fallacy

Continuing something because of past investment of time or effort

Gambler’s Fallacy

Belief that past random events affect future probabilities

Priming

Unconscious activation of associations that influence perception or behavior

Framing

The way information is presented influences decisions and judgments

Divergent Thinking

Expanding ideas to generate many possible solutions

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing ideas down to one best solution

Confirmation Bias

Seeking information that supports existing beliefs while ignoring contradictions

Overconfidence Bias

Being more confident in judgments than justified

Belief Perseverance

Maintaining beliefs even after evidence disproves them

Perception

Process of organizing and interpreting sensory information

Top-Down Processing

Using prior knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory input

Bottom-Up Processing

Building perceptions from raw sensory information

Schema

Mental framework used to organize and interpret information

Assimilation

Interpreting new information using existing schemas

Accommodation

Changing schemas to fit new information

Perceptual Set

Mental tendency to perceive one thing and ignore another

Context Effects

Environmental context influences perception and interpretation

Gestalt Psychology

School of thought emphasizing that we perceive organized wholes

Figure-Ground

Organizing the visual field into objects and background

Proximity

Grouping nearby objects together

Similarity

Grouping similar objects together

Continuity

Perceiving smooth, continuous patterns rather than broken ones

Closure

Filling in gaps to create a complete image

Emergence

Perceiving a whole before recognizing individual parts

Common Region

Objects in the same area are grouped together

Invariance

Recognizing objects as the same despite transformations

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to notice visible objects when attention is elsewhere

Cocktail Party Effect

Ability to focus on one voice among many distractions

Memory

Persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval

Encoding

Getting information into memory

Storage

Retaining information over time

Retrieval

Accessing stored information

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of information

Effortful Processing

Encoding requiring attention and conscious effort

Sensory Memory

Immediate, brief recording of sensory information

Iconic Memory

Brief visual sensory memory lasting about 0

25 seconds

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory lasting 2–4 seconds

Short-Term Memory

Temporary storage holding limited information for a short time

Working Memory

Active processing of information in short-term memory

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent and limitless memory storage

Explicit Memory

Memory of facts and experiences that can be consciously recalled

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory of skills and procedures

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal experiences and events

Semantic Memory

Memory of facts and general knowledge

Procedural Memory

Memory of how to perform tasks

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of neural connections through repeated activation

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Working memory component storing visual and spatial information

Phonological Loop

Working memory component storing verbal and auditory information

Episodic Buffer

Integrates information from different working memory systems

Central Executive

Directs attention and coordinates working memory components

Levels of Processing Model

Memory depends on depth of processing

Structural Encoding

Shallow processing focused on appearance of words

Phonetic Encoding

Processing focused on sounds of words

Semantic Encoding

Deep processing focused on meaning of words

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units

Mnemonic Devices

Memory aids using imagery or organization techniques

Method of Loci

Associating information with physical locations to improve memory

Acronym

Word formed from the first letters of items to remember

Hierarchies

Organizing information into broad categories and subcategories

Distributed Practice

Studying over time for better retention

Massed Practice

Cramming information in one study session

Self-Reference Effect

Better memory for information related to oneself

Primacy Effect

Better recall of items at the beginning of a list

Recency Effect

Better recall of items at the end of a list

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to recall first and last items best

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information with cues

Recall

Retrieving information without cues

Relearning

Learning material again faster after prior learning

Overlearning

Continuing to study after mastery is achieved

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting information to meaning or prior knowledge

Context-Dependent Memory

Better recall in the same environment where learning occurred

State-Dependent Memory

Better recall in the same physical or emotional state

Mood-Congruent Memory

Tendency to recall memories matching current mood

Testing Effect

Improved retention through self-testing and retrieval practice

Forgetting Curve

Rapid forgetting at first that slows over time

Proactive Interference

Old information interferes with learning new information

Retroactive Interference

New information interferes with remembering old information

Repression

Unconscious blocking of distressing memories

Source Amnesia

Remembering information but forgetting where it came from

Misinformation Effect

False memories created by misleading information

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to remember events before age 3

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories after brain injury

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories formed before brain injury

Dissociative Amnesia

Memory loss caused by psychological trauma

Language

System of spoken, written, or signed communication

Phoneme

Smallest distinctive sound unit in language

Morpheme

Smallest unit of meaning in language