Motor Development in Infancy

Proximity-seeking (emotional refueling) when locomoting

Proximity-seeking (emotional refueling) when locomoting

Emotional Refueling

• Each movement an infant makes helps train their visual system and allows them to explore their environment with greater independence.

• As infants begin moving farther from their caregiver, they also learn the social meaning of distance.

• Crawling away can create anxiety, so infants often return to their caregiver for reassurance, a behavior known as “emotional refueling.”

By checking back in, infants regulate their emotions before going out to explore again. This process shows how motor development and social-perceptual development are connected.

Integrating social information with locomotor experience when negotiating risky slopes (experiment) (Tamis-LeMonda & Adolph)

Hypothesis

• If infants know they can safely go down a slope (shallow slope), they will go down regardless of whether their mother encourages or discourages them.

• If infants know the slope is too steep, they will not attempt it, regardless of the mother’s cues.

• If the slope is uncertain (moderately steep), infants will look to their mother’s social cues and follow her encouragement or discouragement.

Method / Procedure

1. Infants were first tested on slopes without social cues to determine which slopes they could safely descend.

2. Then infants were tested again on three types of slopes:

   • Safe (shallow)

   • Impossible (very steep)

   • Uncertain (moderate risk)

3. Mothers either encouraged or discouraged the infant from descending.

Results

• Infants always descended shallow slopes and refused extremely steep slopes, regardless of the mother’s message.

• On uncertain slopes, infants looked to their mothers and followed their encouragement or discouragement.

• Experienced crawlers/walkers used social cues appropriately, while novice movers did not.

Conclusion
Infants integrate their own locomotor experience with social information when making decisions about risk. Locomotor experience helps infants understand social affordances and when to rely on caregiver cues.

Development of tool use and flexible motor strategies (Spoon Study)

Core Idea

Tool use develops through coordination of:

• Motor control

• Planning

• Understanding tool function

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🧪 Study Setup

• Infant is given a spoon with food

• Spoon handle faces:

  • Toward dominant hand (easy)

  • Away from dominant hand (awkward)

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👶 Results by Age Younger infants (~9–14 months)

• Use dominant hand no matter what

• If handle is awkward → still use same hand

• Result:

  • messy

  • inefficient

  • poor success

👉 Behavior = rigid + habit-based

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Older infants (~18–19 months)

• Switch hands depending on orientation

• Choose the most efficient grip

• Smooth, successful movements

👉 Behavior = flexible + planned

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🎯 What This Shows

Tool use is NOT just knowing what to do—it requires:

• Goal understanding (get food to mouth)

• Motor planning (how to grab spoon)

• Inhibitory control (don’t just use dominant hand)

• Flexibility (adapt to situation)

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🔥 Big Developmental Shift

Early:
➡ Action = habit (“I always use this hand”)

Later:
➡ Action = goal-directed (“What’s the best way to succeed?”)

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🧠 Why This Matters (Link to Theory)

Challenges Jean Piaget in an important way:

• Piaget: knowledge comes from action on the world

• Keen: action itself becomes more intelligent and planned over time

👉 Shows development = interaction of:

• cognition

• motor skills

• experience

Development of tool use and flexible motor strategies (Handrail Study)

New cards

Flexible Motor Strategies: Karen Adolph (Handrail Study)

Core Idea

Infants learn to perceive affordances:

• What actions the environment allows or supports

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Study Setup

• Infants walk across a narrow path

• Conditions:

  • No handrail → too risky

  • Stable wooden handrail → usable

  • Unstable rubber handrail → unreliable

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Findings

• Experienced walkers:

  • Use stable handrail

  • Avoid unstable one

  • Show understanding of material properties + support

• Novice walkers:

  • Use any handrail, regardless of stability

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Conclusion

• With experience, infants:

  • Learn about object properties (e.g., solidity)

  • Perceive affordances

  • Make adaptive decisions