Child Psych Exam #3

Executive function

Involves cognitive ability to organize and prioritize thoughts that arise from the various parts of the brain, allowing the person to anticipate, strategize, and plan behavior; can be measured at every stage of life

Short-term or working memory

recently seen and easily brought to mind

Inhibition

ability to control responses

Flexibility (shifting)

ability to see from other’s perspective

Sensitive time

Early childhood is prime time to develop executive function skills

Skills are foundational; the undergird later cognitive abilities and achievements

Skills are not inborn and can be taught; practice at home and school and think about thinking

Preoperational Intelligence

Piaget, occurs between the ages 2 and 6; Suggests think occurs in symbols; Proposes reasoning processes not yet used; includes language, imagination, animism

Symbolic thought

thinking occurs in symbols

*Animism

the tendency to attribute life, consciousness, and intentions to inanimate objects or natural forces

Four limitations of preoperational thought make logic difficult until about age 6

Centration, Focus on appearance, Static reasoning, Irreversibility

*Centration

involves fixing attention on a single dimension, such as height, width, or number, ignoring relevant supporting information.

*Static reasoning

a cognitive limitation in young children who believe the world is unchanging, viewing situations as static rather than transforming

*Irreversibility

a cognitive limitation where children cannot mentally undo a sequence of events or understand that actions can be reversed

Limitations of Piaget’s research

• Piagetian conservation tasks require words

• Modification of tasks (e.g., simple and playful) resulted in better performance of younger children

• Piaget underestimated cognition during early childhood

Three Mountains Task

a classic developmental psychology experiment developed by Jean Piaget and Bärbel Inhelder (1956) to study egocentrism in children's spatial perspective-taking. Children (typically aged 4–12) view a 3D model of three distinct mountains and are asked to identify what a doll, placed at different vantage points, sees.

Social learning

Vygotsky, every aspect of children’s cognitive development is embedded in the social context, is shaped by other people

Apprentice in thinking

Vygotsky, someone whose intellectual growth is stimulated and directed by older and more skilled members of society

Mentors

• Present challenges

• Offer assistance (without taking over)

• Have crucial information

• Encourage motivation

Scaffolding

Process by which people learn from others who guide their experiences and explorations; Culture matters

Zone of proximal development (ZPD)

skills that a person can exercise only with assistance, not yet independently

Overimitation

tendency of children to copy an action that is not a relevant part of the behavior to be learned; common among 2 to 6 year olds when they imitate adult actions that are irrelevant and inefficient; socially motivated and universal

Language as a tool

words are the mediator between brain potential and comprehension

Language advances thinking

internal dialouge or private speech; social mediation

*Social mediation

focuses on the interpersonal and cognitive processes involved in resolving conflict and rebuilding social connections via a neutral third party. It bridges the gap between conflicting parties by addressing emotional, mental, and self-identity issues, often utilizing mentalizing techniques to reduce reactive, un-mentalized behaviors

STEM learning

science, technology, engineering, math; intrest in these vocations begins with learning about math and science; practical use of Vygotsky’s theory

Piaget

discovery learning

Vygotsky

guided discovery, peer collaboration

Theory of mind

involves person’s theory of what other people might be thinking; is slow to develop but typically begins in most children at about age 4, can be seen when young children try to escape punishment by lying

*Sally and Anne task

tests theory of mind (false-belief task); involves a puppet scenario where Sally hides a marble, and Anne moves it while Sally is away. Children with developed perspective-taking (usually age 4+) understand Sally will look in the original location, while failing the test indicates difficulty understanding others' perspectives

Beyond false beliefs

inferring the emotions of others; inferring the intentions of others

*Character Intentions Task

the ability to infer the underlying motivations, goals, and mental states driving a character's observable actions

Gaze-following

Around 3 to 4 months of age, infants begin to look in the general direction of that adults’ heads are turned; Around 9 months, infants become better at looking at an adult’s eyeball and then looking in the same direction the adult is looking

Joint Attention

The child attends to the same object or event as the caregiver; Infants and toddlers can initiate joint attention by pointing to an object

Deficits in Joint Attention

Infants and toddlers with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) may have difficulty establishing joint attention, and may not point; This may limit their ability to develop language, or to learn socially from others

Strengthening theory of mind

Child’s ability to develop theories correlates with the maturity of the prefrontal cortex and with advances in executive processing; Practice, experience, and maturation are relevant; Context and culture matter

Language Learning

Early childhood is a sensitive period or best time to master vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation

The average child knows about 100-2,000 words at age 2 and more than 5,000-30,000 at age 6

Vocabulary explosion

Vocabulary builds quickly and comprehension is greater than production

Verbs, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, and many nouns are mastered

Fast-mapping

speedy and sometimes imprecise way in which children learn new words by tentatively placing them in mental categories according to their perceived meaning

Language extension

closely related to fast-mapping; occurs when children use words to describe other objects in the same category; bilingual children often use code-switching

Grammar of a language

structures, techniques, and rules that communicate meaning; word order and word pretition, prefixes and suffixes, intonation and emphasis

Overregulation

application of rules of grammar even when expectations occur; makes language seem more “regular“ than it actually is

Pragmatics

practical use of language that includes the ability to adjust language communication according to audience and context

Learning two languages

Language-minority people are often disadvantaged if they do not speak the majority language (lower school achievement, self-esteem, and employment opportunities)

Best language learning period is early childhood (bilingual brain may facilitate some resistance to neurocognitive disorders)

Language shifts

becoming more fluent in the school language than in their home language

Balanced billingual

being fluent in two languages, not favoring one over the other; occurs if adults talk frequently, listen carefully, and value both languages

Strategies and experiences to support literacy learning

Code-focused teaching

Book reading

Parent education

Language enhancement

Preschool programs

Early Childhood Education: Homes and Schools

quality matters but it may be difficult to judge; if the home educational environment is poor, a good preschool programs aids health, cognition, and social skills; if a family provides extensive learning opportunities and encouragement, the quality of the preschool is less crucial

Child-centered (developmental) programs

stress each child’s development and growth; support children’s natural inclination to learn through play rather than by following adult directions; encourage self-paced exploration and artistic expression; often show the influence of Piaget or Vygotsky

Child-centered programs: Montessori

emphasize individual pride and accomplishment, presenting literacy-related tasks (such as outlining letters and looking at books)

Child-centered programs: Reggio Emilia

early childhood educations originating in Reggio Emilia, Italy; encourages each child’s documented creativity in a carefully designed setting

Child-centered programs: Waldorf school

emphasis on imagination, creativity, and individuality – with no homework, no tests, no worksheets; nature-based; older children serve as mentors for younger ones, and the curriculum follows the interests of the child, not the age of the child

Teacher-directed programs

stress academic subjects taught by a teacher to an entire class; help children learn letters, numbers, shapes, and colors, as well as how to listen to the teacher and sit quietly; make a clear distinction between work and play; are much less expensive, since the child/adult ratio can be higher

Most Child-Centered programs

Advocate child interaction in own way with materials and ideas

Believe learning comes from within

Resist legislative standards and academic tests

Argue that social skills and creative play are essential; difficult to measure

Most Teacher-Directed programs

Instruct, rather than facilitate learning

Suggest that goals come from outside

Are more consistent in beliefs and behaviors

Are often influenced by parents who want academic skills and respect for authority to be taught

Emotional regulation

lifelong psychosocial task, most important between ages 2 and 6; wide range of feelings without emotional outburst experienced by most children by age 6; delayed gratification difficult for young children

Initiative vs. Guilt

Erikon’s third psychosocial stage; children undertake new skills and activities and feel guilt when they do not succeed at them

Protective Optimism

consists of positivity bias that helps a young child try new things; begins around age 3; belief about the child’s self-worth tied to parental confirmation

Self-concept

person’s understanding of who they are, in morality, intelligence, appearance, talents, and skills; protects child from guilt and shame and encourages learning

Neurological advances

growth of prefrontal cortex at about age 4 or 5; myelination of the limbic system

Improved behaviors and abilities

development of secondary emotions: pride, envy, guilt; improved capacity for self-control; stronger social awareness and self-concept; adult-child engagement in dynamic regulation and deregulation

Intrinsic motivation

from within; drive, or reason, to pursue a goal; seen when children invent imaginary friends

Extrinsic motivation

from the outside; drive, or reason, to pursue a goal; arises from the need to have achievements rewarded from outside

Spontaneous joys

behaviors for sheer joy of it; undercut by exaggerated external praise

Imaginary friends

invented dialogues for toys and invisible companions; existence may be influenced by culture

Play

many developmentalists believe this is children’s most productive activity, not everyone agrees

Parten’s stages of play

Solitary, onlooker, parallel, associative, cooperative

Unoccupied Play

early random movements and observing surroundings help infants gain bodily control, crucial for development

Solitary Play

children play alone, developing concentration and independence, with little intrest in others

Parallel Play

children play side-by-side with similar toys but without direct interaction, acknowledging peers

Onlooker Play

children watch others play and learn social cues by observing without participating

Cooperative Play

children engage in organized activities with shared goods, taking specific roles, enhancing social skills

Associative Play

children interact during play, sharing materials and talking, but without common goals

Screen time

reduces active play time for many children; less conversation, imagination, outdoor activity; consequences for physical activity, emotional immaturity, and intellectual growth; most children watch more than recommended, are unsupervised

American Academy of Pediatric recommendations

• No more than hour daily of any screen time for 2 to 6 years olds

• No programs or games that include violence, sexual media, or racist and sexist stereotypes

Social Play

Babies: do not play together because peer play requires some social interaction

Young children: play best with peers, that is, people of about the same age and social status

With age, children: learn how to join a peer group, manage conflict, take turns, find friends, and play successfully

Playmates

provide practice in emotional regulation, empathy, and social understanding; are preferred play partners over parents; provide an audience, role models, and sometimes competition

Technology Play

if children watch video with other children, digital play can advance development; various digital tools may be used as part of social interaction and encourages cooperation

Rough-and-Tumble Play

Happens everywhere with ample space and minimal supervision; more prevalent among males 

Includes chasing, wrestling, and grabbing each other, with established rules, facial expressions, and gestures to signify “just pretend”

May positively affect limbic system and prefrontal cortex development

Sociodramatic Play

Builds on pretending, which emerges in toddlerhood

Is characterized by increasing own gender preferences

Boys: danger; violence over evil

Girls: domestic scenes as adults

Enables children to:

• Explore and rehearse the social roles

• Explain ideas and persuade playmates

• Practice emotional regulation

• Develop self-concept in nonthreatening context

Authoritarian parenting

high behavioral standards, strict punishment of misconduct, and little communication

Permissive parenting

high nurturance and communcation but little discipline, guidance, or control

Authoritative parenting

parents set limits and enforce rules but are flexible and listen to their children

Neglectful/uninvolved parenting

parents are indifferent toward their children and unaware of what is going on in their children’s lives (Sternberg)

Discipline

Every form of discipline has critics and defenders

Physical punishment trends in the United States

• More often used on younger children, rather than older children or infants

• More frequently used by mothers than fathers and in low-SES families

• More frequent among conservative Christians, African Americans, U.S. born Hispanics

Local norms and individual parents influence discipline decisions

• Worldwide implementation of corporal punishment differs: from illegal to normative

Many adults who were spanked as children believe spanking caused no harm

• Correlation between spanking and aggression is found in all ethnic groups and in many nations

• Physically disciplined children tend to become more aggressive and use corporal punishment on others

Paddling in Schools

Worldwide

• Physical punishment is illegal in any educational setting in 100+ nations

United States

• Teachers may legally paddle in 19 states

• More than 100,000 corporally punished at school (2019); disproportionate number were boys, especially African American boys

• Most common infractions were “minor, non-violent” (i.e., teacher disobedience, not following guidelines)

• Data from those two states make it clear that policies regarding school discipline change politically, not based on actual misbehavior

Psychological control

uses children’s shame, guilt, and gratitude to control their behavior; linked with lower math scores and negative emotions

Time-out

misbehaving child is required to sit quietly, without toys or playmates, for a short time; calm adult, one minute per child’s age

Induction

parents discuss the infraction with their child to encourage realization why behavior is wrong; may cause confusion of cause and conseqeunces

Sex differences

biological differences between males and females, in organs, hormones, and body shape

Gender differences

differences in male and female roles, behaviors, clothes, and so on that arise from society, not biology

Development of Gender Identities

Children

• By age 4

  • Children believe that certain toys and roles are reserved for one sex, even when experience is otherwise

• By age 6

  • Children may become rigid

Parents

• Women are more likely to encourage play with toys associated with other sex

• Young children, especially girls, may reject encouragement

All children

• Have definite ideas of what clothes, toys, and activities they prefer

Transgender children

• Identify themselves with a gender

• Choose whatever conforms to their gender, just as the cisgender children

The Gender Binary

gender traits are not opposite, much overlap exists between men and women; in nonbinary perspective, every aspect of human brains, behavior, and bodies in somewhere along continuum; most human brains and behaviors are a male/female mosaic

*Phallic stage

Freud’s third psychosexual development stage (ages 3–6), centers on genital curiosity and pleasure, where children develop sexual desires for the opposite-sex parent and rivalry toward the same-sex parent

*Oedipus complex

a psychoanalytic theory describing a child's subconscious desire for the opposite-sex parent and hostility toward the same-sex parent during the phallic stage (ages 3–6)

*Superego

the ethical, moralizing component of personality that acts as an internal judge, fostering conscience and striving for perfection. It internalizes societal rules and parental standards, acting as the counterweight to the impulsive id and guiding the ego to act morally, often producing guilt when standards are not met.

*Electra complex

a Freudian psychoanalytic concept describing a young girl’s (typically ages 3–6) subconscious sexual desire for her father and rivalry with her mother, often accompanied by "penis envy"

Behaviorism: Gender-type behavior

Product of ongoing reinforcement, punishment, and social learing; learned through all roles, values, and morals

Social learning theory

children model themselves after people who are nurturing, powerful, and similar to themselves, usually their parents; peers and social norms also reinforce gender binary; as social learning increases from age 2 to 22, so does gender divergence

Cognitive theory

offers an alternative explanation for the strong gender identity that becomes apparent at about age 5

Gender schema

child’s cognitive concept or general belief of male-female differences; based on observations and experiences

Sociocultural theory

stresses importance of cultural values and customs; proposes transmission of cultural aspects from larger community and parents; notes influence of norms and preferences changes as cultures change

Evolutionary theory

sexual passion is basic human drive related to essential urges to survive and reproduce; gender-related behavior differences are dictated by genes