POLYSACCHARIDES

General formula for most polysaccharides

(C₆H₁₀O₅)_n

Glycosidic bonds are________ bonds

covalent

Formation of glycosidic bonds: __________

Breaking of glycosidic bonds: _________

condensation reaction (dehydration); hydrolysis

Linkages that typically result in helical, easily digestible structures

Alpha linkages

Linkages that result in straight, rigid, and tough fibers

Beta linkages

Example of Beta linkages

cellulose

Example of Alpha linkages

starch and glycogen

Appearance and purpose of linear structure

packed tightly to provide strength and support in plant cells

Appearance and purpose of branched structure

creates more ends for enzymes to attach to, allowing rapid energy release, which is more accessible for energy storage in organisms

Glycogen branches every _____ glucose

8-12

Amylopectin branches every _____ glucose

24-30

Chitin and Cellulose is for

structure

Example of unbranched heteropolysaccharide

Hyaluronic acid (HA), Heparin, and Agarose

Example of branched heteropolysaccharide

Agaropectin

Example of branched homopolysaccharide

Glycogen

Example of unbranched homopolysaccharide

Cellulose

Because polysaccharides are insoluble in water, they can form ________ in water

colloidal suspensions

Polysaccharides taste ________

nothing

Polysaccharides are generally ___________ in appearance

Amorphous and powdery

Polymer of glucose linked by α(1→4) and α(1→6) glycosidic bonds

Starch

Used as tablet filler, binder, and disintegrant

Starch

Antidote for iodine poisoning

Starch

Makes up about 20-30% of starch.

Amylose

Makes up the bulk of starch about 70-80% of starch.

Amylopectin

Amylose in iodine test: ___________

Amylopectin in iodine test: ___________

Deep blue; Blue violet/purple

Amylose is ______ soluble than amylopectin

more

Amylases in animals that is found in pancreatic juice and saliva and performs incomplete hydrolysis of starch,

α-amylases

pancreatic juice: ________

salive: ______

amylopsin; ptyalin

Amylases in plants that remove maltose units from the non-reducing end of polysaccharides

β-amylases

Elongation: creates the linear chains by transferring glucose units from ADP-glucose to the end of an existing starch chain, forming α(1→4) bond

Starch synthase (SS)

Elongation: specifically responsible for synthesizing amylose. Without this enzyme, plants will produce waxy starch that is made up of 100% amylopectin

Granule-bound starch synthase (GBSS)

Elongation: primarily builds a short chain that eventually becomes amylopectin.

Soluble starch synthase (SSS)

Branching: cuts a piece of linear α(1→4) chain and reattaches it to another site in the chain to create an α(1→6) bond (for rapid degradation).

starch branching enzyme (SBE)

Last step in the synthesis of starch so the plant will not create a disorganized, water-soluble molecule called phytoglycogen

Polishing structure (Debranching)

Enzymes that trim away misplaces or excessive branches

iso-amylases

Starch that is chemically or mechanically processed to rupture all or part of the granules; tablet binder.

Pregelatinized starch/modified starch/instant starch

Starch used as a super-disintegrating agent that cause tablets to burst or open rapidly once it hits the stomach

Sodium Starch Glycollate (SSG)

Starch used as a plasma volume expander at 6%, used to treat hypovolemia

Hetastarch (Hydroxyethyl starch)

Also a α(1→4) and α(1→6) glycosidic bonds found in animals.

Glycogen

Results of glycogen under iodine test

Wine red

A fructan linked by β(2→1) with one molecule of glucose at the terminal.

Inulin

Inulin is rich in plants under ________ family such as dandelion (Taraxacum officinale)

Asteraceae

the gold standard for measuring the glomerular filtration rate (GFR), hence is used for the evaluation of renal function.

Inulin

When it reaches the colon, it's consumed by beneficial gut bacteria like lactobacilli and bifidobacteria. Hence, it is considered a probiotic

Inulin

A glucan linked by α(1→6) bonds with some branching due to α(1→3), and occasionally at α(1→2) and α(1→4)

Dextran

Source of Dextran

Leuconostoc mesenteroides (by dextran sucrase/transglycosylase)

Plasma expander at 10% (due to osmolality and viscosity similar to plasma

Dextran

IV iron supplement (used when oral iron is not tolerated)

Iron Dextran

Brand name of a cross-linked dextran beads used for size-exclusion chromatography

Sephadex®

Dextran: low molecular weight, often used to improve blood flow or microcirculation

Dextran 40

Dextran: high molecular weight, stays in the bloodstream longer

Dextran 70

Used in its formulation as artificial tears present in lubricating eyedrops. It helps the solution cling to the surface of the eye easily

Dextran 70

Polymer of glucose linked by β(1→4) glycosidic bonds

Cellulose

Most abundant organic compound on Earth

Cellulose

Source of cotton

Gossypium hirsutum or Gossypium herbaceum

Young cotton hair: ________

Matured cotton hair: ________

Cylindrical; Flattened and twisted

Solubility Test of cottons

ammoniacal cupric oxide test (Schweizer's reagent)

Cotton that dissolves and leave fragments of cuticle (impure)

Raw cotton

Cotton that dissolves with uniform swelling.

Absorbent cotton

Cotton is produced via _____ processes

bleaching and purification

Raw cotton is hydrophobic (water repellant) due to the cuticle. To make it absorbent, it must undergo ___________ treatment.

Alkali (scouring)

Cotton production: Raw fibers are boiled under pressure with a dilute solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH). It dissolves the pectinacious matter of the primary cell wall

Saponification

Cotton production: the scoured cotton is treated with bleaching agent mostly commonly used is sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) or hydrogen peroxide or H2O2 . This removes the natural pigments and ensures a high degree of whiteness

Bleaching

Cotton production: neutralizes any remaining alkaline then it will undergo washing and drying. The fibers are washed totally with the mineralized water until neutral and then dry

Acid wash

Cotton is capable of absorbing up to _____ times of weight in water.

24

Produced from naturally occurring, long-chain molecules which have been isolated, controlled, and modified to give a suitable fibre form.

Regenerated Cellulose Fibers

Source of Regenerated Cellulose Fibers

coniferous wood (e.g., pine trees)

Used for surgical dressings

Viscose (Rayon)

A regenerated fiber used for blouse fabrics

Continuous filament rayon

A regenerated fiber that is cut up of fixed length; used in surgical dressings

Staple rayon

The engine or the work force of modern drug delivery

Celulose ethers

Cellulose ether is normally insoluble and rigid cellulose becomes water soluble, more flexible, and highly sticky due to _________ of groups

functional substitution

Cellulose ether: Prepared by action of methyl chloride on alkali cellulose used as laxative

Methylcellulose

Best grade of Methylcellulose

2 out of 3 OH is methylated

Cellulose ether: Produced by action of monochloroacetic acid on alkali cellulose

Carmellose

Cellulose ether: Tablet binder and film coat

Ethylcellulose

Cellulose ether: Enteric coating for tablets used to deliver insulin via oral route.

Cellulose acetate phthalate (CAP)

Highly flammable nitrocellulose product that has lower nitrogen content, typically 10.5% to 12.2%, usually used as an explosive.

Pyroxylin

Pyroxylin is produced from action of nitric and sulfuric acid on cotton used as a _______

Topical protectant

Forms a colloidon with alcohol and ether in 1:3 ratio

Pyroxylin

Flexible Pyroxylin: _________

Waterproof Pyroxylin: _________

castor oil (3%); camphor (2%)

Surgical materials designed to stop bleeding or hemostasis and this can be left behind inside the body where they are eventually broken down and absorbed by natural processes

Absorbable Hemostatic Dressings

Two methods of hemostatic dressings

Formation of scaffhold and addition of thrombin

Oxidized cellulose is a cotton treated with _________ until around 16-22% of all glucose residues are oxidized to glucuronic acid

nitrogen dioxide

Oxidized cellulose is marketed as

Surgicel ®

Hemostatic dressings: When it gets in contact with blood, it swells into brownish black gelatinous mass that acts as a physical clot

Oxidized cellulose

Hemostatic dressings: Gold standard for managing highly exudative (heavy-leaking) wounds like ulcers, pressure injuries, and surgical sites.

Alginate fibres

Alginate fibres release ______ ions providing hemostatic properties because it helps trigger the clotting cascade making them useful for minor bleeding

calcium

____ ratio of mannuronic acid gives weaker gel and less fiber strength in alginate fibers

High

Cotton-allied plants are classified as _____

bast fibers

bast fibers are found in the ______ of a plant

phloem

Bast fibers are harvested through a process called _______, where moisture and bacteria are used to dissolve the pectins and lignins that glue the fibers to the woody core of the stem

Retting (Fiber Separation)

Scientific name of Jute

Corchorus capsularis or Corchorus olitorius

Scientific name of Flax

Linum usitatissimum

Scientific name of Hemp

Cannabis sativa

Known as the golden fiber due to its color and high cash value. It is also the second most important vegetable fibers after cotton.

Jute

Plant used to produce linen and linseed oil, considered to be one of the oldest cultivated plants in human history

Flax

Plant historically used as ship ropes, now used for sustainable clothing, paper, and hemp bioplastics.

Hemp

In botanical and pharmaceutical chemistry gums and mucilages are ____________

plant hydrocolloids

Acidic heteroglycans yielding uronic acids + pentoses upon hydrolysis.

Gums and mucilages