NYS Global History and Geography Regents

95 Theses

Document written by Martin Luther detailing what he believed to be the problems in the medieval Church.

Abraham

The first patriarch in the Bible. Abraham was asked by God to sacrifice his son, Isaac, and was rewarded for being prepared to do so. He is considered by Jewish people as the father of the Israelites through his son Isaac, and by Muslims as the father of Arab peoples through his son Ishmael.

absolute monarchy

A political system in which a country is ruled by a monarch, who has absolute control.

adaptation

A change made to survive an environment or to overcome a disadvantage.

African National Congress (ANC)

A group formed in protest of the policy of Apartheid in South Africa. It was eventually outlawed due to their violent tactics, and Nelson Mandela, one of its leaders, was imprisoned for over thirty years.

West African Kingdoms

Three African kingdoms, Ghana, Mali, and Songhai that were important in the trans-Sahara trade of gold form the west coast of Africa to North Africa and the Middle East. Their trade provided enough wealth to create the conditions necessary for cultural and intellectual achievement.

Age of Exploration

Time period during the 15th and 16th centuries when Europeans searched for new sources of wealth and for easier trade routes to China and India. Resulted in the discovery of North and South America by the Europeans.

Age of Reason/Enlightenment

(1650-1790) Time in which great philosophers began thinking about how to correct political, social, and economic problems in their societies and western Europe.

Agrarian Revolution

A change in farming methods that allowed for a greater production of food. This revolution was fueled by the use of new farming technology such as the seed drill and improved fertilizers. The result of this revolution was a population explosion due to the higher availability of food. It was one of the causes of the Industrial Revolution.

agriculture

The cultivating of land, producing of crops, and raising of livestock for human consumption.

Akbar the Great

(1542-1605) Emperor of the Mughal Empire in India. He is considered to be their greatest ruler. He is responsible for the expansion of his empire, the stability his administration gave to it, and the increasing of trade and cultural diffusion.

Alexander the Great

(356 BCE-323 BCE) He conquered most of the ancient world from Asia Minor to Egypt and India, which began the Hellenistic culture which was a blending of Greek, Persian, Indian, and Egyptian influences.

Allied Powers

Alliance of Great Britain, Soviet Union, United States, and France during World War II.

American Revolution

Political revolution in the British North American Colonies starting in 1776 that removed the colonies from Great Britain's control, and established an independent nation know as the United States of America.

The Analects

Collection of moral and social teachings of Confucius, including the concept of the Five Relationships.

ancestor worship

Worship given to deceased relatives who are believed to be closer to the Gods, and therefore able to grant favors.

Animism

The oldest known type of belief system in the world. It is still practiced in a variety of forms in many traditional societies. Animists practice nature worship. They believe that everything in the universe has a spirit. This is exemplified by the practices of the Plains Indians in North America who would praise the spirit of the buffalo that they killed for giving its life to them so that they might survive. Animists also believed that ancestors watch over the living from the spirit world. This belief resulted in ancestor worship as a means of communicating with and showing respect to ancestors.

anti-Semitism

The hatred of people of Jewish descent.

apartheid

A political policy in South Africa where black South Africans could only live in certain areas, were required to use separate trains, beaches, restaurants, and schools, and could not enter into an interracial marriage.

appeasement

The policy of pacifying an aggressive nation in the hopes of avoiding further conflict.

aqueducts

Above ground structures used to carry water long distances. Built by the ancient Romans.

archipelago

A group or chain of islands.

architect

A person who designs buildings.

armistice

A truce during wartime.

artisan

A person who is skilled at a craft, such as weaving, or woodcarving.

Aryans

Nomadic warriors from Central Asia who migrated into India around 1500 BCE. They are responsible for many aspects of current Indian culture including their language, sacred texts called the Vedas, and a system of government that later evolved into the caste system.

Asoka

(?-232 BCE) King of the Maurya dynasty. He ruled nearly the entire subcontinent of India. He also was instrumental in the spread of Buddhism after his conversion.

assassination

The killing of a political leader or other public figure.

astrolabe

A device used to determine latitude by observing the altitude and position of the sun or other start or planet.

Augustus

(63 BCE - 14 CE) First emperor of Rome (27 BCE - 14 CE) He restored order and prosperity to the Empire after nearly a century of turmoil. Grandnephew to Julius Caesar.

Axis Powers

Alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan during World War II.

Ayatollah Khomeini

(1900?-1989) Islamic religious leader who led a fundamentalist revolution in Iran in 1979. Ruled until 1989.

Aztecs

A Mesoamerican civilization of Mexico who created a strong empire that flourished between the 14th and 15th century. The arrival of Hernando Cortez and the Spanish Conquistadores ended their empire.

balance of power

A political policy in which countries attempt to preserve peace by keeping an equal military and economic status.

Balfour Declaration

A promise made by British Prime Minister Balfour to create a homeland for the Jewish people.

Baron de Montesquieu

(1689-1755) Enlightenment thinker from France who wrote a book called, The Spirit of the Laws in 1748. In his book, Montesquieu describes what he considers to be the best government. He states that government should divide itself according to its powers, creating a Judicial, Legislative, and Executive branch. Montesquieu explained that under this system each branch would Check and Balance the others, which would help protect the people's liberty.

barter

The exchange of goods or services for other goods or services.

BCE

Date designation meaning Before Common Era, or more than two thousand years ago. Equal to BC

Berlin Conference

(1884-1885) During European Imperialism, various European leaders met in Berlin, Germany to discuss plans for dividing Africa peacefully. These leaders had little regard for African independence, and had no representation for native Africans. This began the process of imperializing Africa.

Berlin Wall

A wall built in 1961 dividing Soviet controlled East Berlin from the democratic West Berlin. It was destroyed when communism ended in 1990.

blitzkrieg

German word meaning lightning war. It was a German army tactic during World War II which called for quick moving, hard hitting drives into enemy territory.

Boer War

(1899-1902) War between Great Britain and the Boers in South Africa over control of rich mining country. Great Britain won and created the Union of South Africa comprised of all the South African colonies.

Boers

Dutch descended colonist living in South Africa. Also called Afrikaners.

Simón Bolívar

(1783-1830) Latin American revolutionary responsible for the ousting of Spain from much of South America during the 19th century. He is considered to be the most important figure in the fight for Latin American independence.

Bolshevik

Early name of communists during the Russian Revolution of 1917.

Napoleon Bonaparte

(1769-1821) Emperor of the French. Responsible for many French Revolution reforms as well as conquering most of Europe. He was defeated at Waterloo, and died several years later on the island of Saint Helena.

bourgeoisie

Term given to the middle class people in society.

Boxer Rebellion

(1900) A rebellion by the people of China to end foreign domination.

Brahma

Hindu god called the Creator. Brahma is the first member of the triad that includes Vishnu the Preserver and Shiva the Destroyer.

Brahman

In Hinduism, Brahman is the name given to the oneness of the universe.

bubonic plague

An infectious disease transmitted by fleas. It is characterized by fever, chills, and the formation of swellings. Also known as the Black Plague or Black Death.

Buddha

Hindu for "enlightened one." See also Siddhartha Gautama.

Buddhism

Buddhism developed in India, and is based on many of the core concepts of Hinduism.. Buddhists believe in an endless cycle of reincarnation, or samsara, which is similar to beliefs of Hinduism. However, Buddhists do not believe that deities are responsible for the phenomenon. In addition, the Caste System is rejected by Buddhists who believe instead that one is reincarnated until they can achieve nirvana, best described as spiritual enlightenment.

bureaucracy

The administration portion of the government.

Bushido

Code of conduct for Samurai and nobles during Japanese feudalism.

Byzantine Empire

(330-1453) The eastern half of the Roman Empire, which survived after the fall of the Western Empire at the end of the 5th century C.E. Its capital was Constantinople, named after the Emperor Constantine.

Caliph

In Islam, the successor to the Prophet Mohammed.

John Calvin

(1509-1564) Theologian and church reformer who developed a form of Protestantism during the Reformation. His church is known for the idea of predestination, which states certain people are predestined for heaven.

Cape of Good Hope

Southern tip of the African continent.

capital

Money that is used for investment.

capitalism

An economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and distribution of goods. Also promotes a free market regulated by supply and demand. Making money for a profit.

caravel

A Portuguese ship that had a large cargo area and used two orthree masts.

cartography

The skill of making maps.

Caste System

A rigid social class system in Hinduism. That has no social mobility (Can't move up or down within the social class during your lifetime)

Fidel Castro

(1926?- ) Leader of the Cuban Revolution and communist dictator of Cuba. He is responsible for making Cuba a socialist country which has often been at odds with the United States. Notably, the bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Catherine the Great

An enlightened despot who ruled over Russia. She is responsible for many positive changes in Russia, as well as securing the country a warm water port.

CE

Date designation meaning Common Era, or the last two thousand years of history. Equal to AD

chinampas

floating islands of land anchored to a lake bottom used for agriculture. This technique was used by the Aztecs.

Chinese Communist Revolution

A political revolution in China led by Mao Zedong. After several years of fighting the Kuomintang, the communists won control of the country in 1949.

Chivalry

Code of conduct for knight and nobles during European feudalism.

Christianity

Currently the most popular religion in the world based on the number of worshippers found throughout the world. While this monotheistic religion developed from Judaism, there are several key differences in its teachings. Christianity was founded by Jesus Christ in the 1st century CE. The Christian holy book is called the Holy Bible.

Winston Churchill

(1874-1965) British politician and Prime Minster of Great Britain from 1940 to 1945, and 1951 to 1955. He is regarded as the finest British leader of the 20th century and was instrumental in leading Britain to victory during World War II.

circumference

The distance around the edge of a circle.

circumnavigate

To travel around something, like an island or the world.

city-state

An independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding lands.

civil disobedience

The purposeful breaking of laws to protest actions by the government.

civil service exam

In China, it was an exam based on Confucian teachings that was used to select people for various government service jobs in the bureaucracy.

civil war

A war between groups of people in the same country, culture, or political system.

civilization

A society that has a high level of culture and social organization including organized government, job specialization, and a organized belief system.

Cold War

Non shooting conflict between the Soviet Union and their allies and the United States and their allies. Numerous secondary conflicts arise due to the Cold War.

collective farm

A government owned farms where peasants work on a quota (quantity specified by government) system.

colonialism

The policy of maintaining colonies as a source of raw materials and new markets. Practiced during old and new imperialism.

colonization

A group of people moving from their homeland to a new area in large numbers.

Columbian Exchange

The exchange of goods and other things, such as disease from the Old World (Europe) to the new World (North and South America) and back.

Command Economy

An economic system controlled by strong, centralized government, which usually focuses on industrial goods. With little attention paid to agriculture and consumer goods.

commerce

The large scale buying of goods and/or services. Conducting business.

Commercial Revolution

A dramatic change in the economy of Europe at the end of the Middle Ages. It is characterized by an increase in towns and trade, the use of banks and credit, and the establishment of guilds to regulate quality and price.

communism

A system of government in which a single, totalitarian, party holds power. It is characterized by state control of the economy, and restriction on personal freedoms. It was first proposed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in The Communist Manifesto.

The Communist Manifesto

A book written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that describes the new political system of scientific socialism, which becomes the basis for communism. The book states that all of human history is based on the conflict between the bourgeoisie (those who own the means of production) and the proletariat (working class), and predicted that the proletariat would rise up in a violent revolution to overthrow the bourgeoisie and create a society with an equal distribution of goods and services.

Russian Revolution

A political revolution in Russia beginning in 1917. The Bolsheviks, now known as Communists, overthrew Czar Nicholas II and created a socialist government based upon the writings of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin. Also know as the Bolshevik Revolution.

concentration camp

A prison camp used to hold Jews during World War II and the Holocaust.

Confucianism

Confucius lived in China during the Chou Dynasty, when there was mass disorder and confusion and degrading moral standards. Confucius was appalled by what appeared to be the fracturing of Chinese society. He believed that the only cure was to stress a sense of social order and mutual respect, a philosophy that later became known as Confucianism. Confucianism teaches that there is a natural social order to society which can best be explained through the Five Relationships.

Confucius

(551-479 BCE?) Chinese philosopher and writer of The Analects, a collection of moral and social teachings, including the concept of the Five Relationships. Also known as Kong Fu Zi.

Congress of Vienna

Meeting of European political leaders to reestablish former territorial borders after the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the fall of Napoleon. The Congress was held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815, and was dominated by Prince Metternich of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

conquistadors

Spanish conquerors who came to the New World in search of gold and other riches.

Constantine the Great

(274 CE - 337 CE) Roman Emperor between 306 CE and 337 CE. He issued the Edict of Milan which outlawed the persecution of Christians. He also founded the city of Constantinople, the future capital of the Byzantine Empire.

constitutional monarchy

A political system in which a country is ruled by a monarch who has limited power due to a constitution

containment

A cold war policy that called for containing communism to areas already under its influence. This policy was proposed by U.S. President Harry Truman.

Nicolaus Copernicus

(1473-1543) Polish astronomer who wrote On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres. Theorized that the Earth orbited the Sun (heliocentric system) and laid the foundations of modern astronomy.

Hernan Cortez

(1485-1547) Spanish conquistador who was responsible for the conquest of the Aztec Empire and the claiming of much of Central America for the Spanish.