Psych unit 3

Neuron

A specialised cell that receives, processes and transmits information throughout the nervous system.

Sensory receptor

A sensory nerve ending that detects a stimulus and produces a sensory impulse.

Sensory neuron

A neuron that carries sensory information from receptors to the central nervous system.

Interneuron

A neuron within the central nervous system that relays information between sensory and motor neurons.

Motor neuron

A neuron that carries motor information from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

Dendrite

A branch-like structure that receives information from other neurons.

Axon

A long fibre that carries neural impulses away from the cell body.

Myelin sheath

A fatty covering around an axon that increases the speed of neural transmission.

Terminal button

The end of an axon that releases neurotransmitters.

Synapse

The junction between two neurons where communication occurs.

Synaptic gap

The small space between two neurons across which neurotransmitters travel.

Action potential

The electrical impulse that travels along a neuron.

Neural transmission

The process of communicating information throughout the nervous system.

Neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger that carries information across a synapse.

Neuromodulator

A chemical that influences the activity of many neurons and affects overall brain activity.

Glutamate

The primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.

GABA

The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Dopamine

A neuromodulator involved in reward, motivation, movement and attention.

Serotonin

A neuromodulator involved in mood, sleep, appetite and emotional regulation.

Excitatory effect

Increases the likelihood that a postsynaptic neuron will fire.

Inhibitory effect

Decreases the likelihood that a postsynaptic neuron will fire.

Central nervous system (CNS)

The division of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Brain

The organ responsible for processing information, coordinating behaviour and regulating bodily functions.

Spinal cord

A bundle of nerves that carries information between the brain and the body.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

The division of the nervous system consisting of all nerves outside the CNS.

Somatic nervous system

The subdivision of the PNS responsible for voluntary movement and sensory information.

Autonomic nervous system

The subdivision of the PNS responsible for involuntary bodily functions.

Sympathetic nervous system

The subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that activates the body during stress.

Parasympathetic nervous system

The subdivision of the autonomic nervous system that restores the body to a calm state.

Conscious response

A response performed with awareness and deliberate control.

Unconscious response

A response performed without awareness or deliberate control.

Spinal reflex

An involuntary and unconscious response involving the spinal cord that occurs without input from the brain.

Afferent pathway

A pathway carrying sensory information towards the central nervous system.

Efferent pathway

A pathway carrying motor information away from the central nervous system.

Synaptic plasticity

The ability of neural connections to change in strength and structure over time.

Long-term potentiation (LTP)

A long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections.

Long-term depression (LTD)

A long-lasting weakening of synaptic connections.

Sprouting

The growth of new neural connections between neurons.

Rerouting

The formation of alternative neural pathways around damaged areas.

Pruning

The removal of weak or unused neural connections.

Synaptogenesis

The formation of new synapses between neurons.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behaviour or knowledge due to experience.

Stress

A state of physiological and psychological arousal produced by internal or external stressors.

Stressor

Any stimulus that causes stress.

Internal stressor

A source of stress originating within the individual.

External stressor

A source of stress originating from the environment.

Physiological stressor

A stressor that directly affects the body's physical functioning.

Psychological stressor

A stressor involving perceived threats, challenges or pressures.

Eustress

A positive form of stress that motivates and enhances performance.

Distress

A negative form of stress that impairs functioning.

Fight-flight-freeze response

A physiological response that prepares the body to deal with a threat.

Cortisol

A stress hormone released during prolonged stress.

Allostatic load

The cumulative wear and tear on the body caused by repeated stress.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

A three-stage model describing the body's response to prolonged stress.

Alarm reaction

The first stage of GAS in which the fight-flight-freeze response is activated.

Resistance

The second stage of GAS in which the body attempts to cope with the stressor.

Exhaustion

The final stage of GAS in which resources become depleted.

Lazarus and Folkman Transactional Model

A model explaining stress as the result of an individual's appraisal of a stressor and their coping resources.

Primary appraisal

The evaluation of whether an event is irrelevant, benign-positive or stressful.

Secondary appraisal

The evaluation of available coping resources and options.

Reappraisal

The ongoing reassessment of a stressor based on new information.

Coping strategy

A conscious effort to manage stress.

Problem-focused coping

A coping strategy aimed at addressing the source of stress.

Emotion-focused coping

A coping strategy aimed at managing emotional responses to stress.

Avoidance-focused coping

A coping strategy involving avoiding the stressor or related emotions.

Resilience

The ability to adapt positively and recover from adversity.

Gut-brain axis (GBA)

The bidirectional communication network between the gastrointestinal tract and the brain.

Vagus nerve

A cranial nerve that forms a major communication pathway between the gut and the brain.

Classical conditioning

A type of learning through association between stimuli.

Neutral stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially produces no relevant response.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally produces a response.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

A natural response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that produces a learned response.

Conditioned response (CR)

A learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

Acquisition

The process of establishing a conditioned response.

Operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behaviour is influenced by its consequences.

Reinforcement

A consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour occurring again.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus following a behaviour.

Negative reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus following a behaviour.

Punishment

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour occurring again.

Positive punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus following a behaviour.

Negative punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus following a behaviour.

Observational learning

Learning that occurs by observing and imitating others.

Attention

The process of focusing on the behaviour of a model.

Retention

The process of remembering observed behaviour.

Reproduction

The ability to perform the observed behaviour.

Motivation

The desire to imitate the observed behaviour.

Memory

The process of encoding, storing and retrieving information.

Encoding

The conversion of information into a form suitable for storage.

Storage

The retention of information over time.

Retrieval

The recovery of stored information.

Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model

A model describing memory as sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.

Sensory memory

The initial storage of sensory information.

Short-term memory (STM)

A temporary memory store with limited capacity and duration.

STM capacity

Approximately 7 ± 2 items.

STM duration

Approximately 18–30 seconds.

Long-term memory (LTM)

A relatively permanent memory store with potentially unlimited capacity and duration.

Maintenance rehearsal

The repetition of information to maintain it in short-term memory.

Elaborative rehearsal

The process of linking new information to existing knowledge to improve long-term storage.

Explicit memory

Memory that can be consciously recalled.