Psychology

boooooo

dominant trait

a characteristic that is expressed even if only one copy of the corresponding allele is present

recessive trait

a characteristic that is expressed only when an individual inherits two copies of the recessive allele, one from each parent

homozygous

having two of the same genes for a trait (ex. BB = brown eye dominant)

heterozygous

having two different genes (ex. Bb = brown eye dominant, blue eye recessive)

phenotype

actual trait

genotype

genes that cause a certain trait to be shown

zygote / germinal

fertilized ovum cell, single-celled, conception - 2 weeks

embryo / embryonic

earliest stage of development, begins after fertilization, 2-8 weeks

fetus / fetal

offspring in the stages of prenatal development, follows the embryo stage, 8-40 weeks (birth)

How many trimesters are there? How long is each?

3 trimesters, 3 months each (first, second, third)

teratogens

factors from the environment that are detrimental or contradicted in pregnancy (ex. alcohol, sushi, deli meats, caffeine, certain medication)

threshold effect

some things are okay in small amounts, but detrimental in large amounts

temperament

a person’s nature, especially as it permanently affects their behavior

what are piaget’s stages of cognitive development?

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

sensorimotor

birth - 2 years, learning through senses / movement, babies learn things through touching / looking, object permanence

object permanence

objects still exist even when you cant see them

preoperational

2-7 years, use language / imagination, unlogical thinking, egocentrism, animism, centration

egocentrism

difficulty seeing things from another person’s perspective

animism

believing non-living things have thoughts / feelings

centration

focusing on only one aspect of a situation

concrete operational

7-11 years, start using logical thinking (only w/ real things), reversibility, conservation, less egocentric

reversibility

understanding some actions can be reversed

conservation

reciprocal relationships between humans and the natural world

formal operational

can think abstractly / hypothetically, use logic / ideas, not just real objects

schema

a way to mentally organize / understand information

assimilation

adding new info into existing schema

accommodation

creating new schema when needed

symbolic representation

using symbols to represent objects

what are kohlberg’s stages of moral development?

preconventional thought, conventional thought, postconventional thought

preconventional thought

based on punishment / rewards, wont do it because they will get in trouble

conventional thought

follow rules / social approval, wants to be seen as good

postconventional thought

based on self-defined ethical principles, your own set of ethics

what are freud’s psychosexual stages?

oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital

oral

birth - 1 year, babies sucking activities towards breast or bottle, if oral needs not met may develop habits such as thumb sucking, fingernail biting in childhood and overeating / smoking in later life.

anal

1-3 years, toddlers and toilet training, if parent insists they need to be potty trained before the child is ready, can cause conflicts.

phallic

3-6 years, id impulses transfer to the gentials, and the child finds pleasure in genital stimulation. Oedipus conflict for boys, and Electra conflict for girls. young child feels sexual desire for opposite sex parent.

latency

6-11 years, sexual instincts die down, and superego develops further, child acquires new social values from adults outside of the family and from play with same sex peers.

genital

adolescence, puberty causes sexual impulses of phallic stage to reappear. if development in previous stages was successful, it leads to marriage, mature sexuality, and birth of children.

what are erikson’s psychosocial stages?

trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. identity confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, integrity vs. despair

trust vs. mistrust

can i trust the world? needs met = trust, baby neglected = mistrust. outcome = sense of safety. oral (birth-2)

autonomy vs. shame / doubt

can i do things myself? encouraged = independence, criticized / controlled = shame / doubt. learning to walk / talk. anal (2-3).

initiative vs. guilt

is it okay for me to this? encouraged = initiative, punished = guilt, fear of doing things wrong. asking questions. phallic ( 3-5).

industry vs inferiority

am i capable? praised for effort = competence, criticized / compared = inferiority. success = i can do things well. latency (6-12).

identity vs. role of confusion

who am i? explored successfully = strong identity, confused = role of confused identity. different styles, friend groups, beliefs. genital (12-19).

intimacy vs. isolation

can i form close relationships? success = deep connections, love. not = isolation, loneliness. (20-40)

generativity vs stagnation

am i contributing to society? yes = purpose, productivity, no = stagnation, feeling stuck. (40-60).

integrity vs despair

did i live a meaningful life? reflecting on life choices. satisfied = integrity, regretful = despair

stress

physiological / psychological response to a condition that threatens or perceives to threaten an individual, and requires some form of adaptation / adjustment

intrinsic motivation

an internal desire to perform a task, being driven by internal motivation rather than something external like praise or money

extrinsic motivation

the drive to perform an activity to achieve external rewards or to avoid negative consequences, rather than for inherent enjoyment

facial feedback hypothesis

facial expressions not only reflect emotions but can also influence and modulate your emotions themselves

cognitive appraisals

primary/secondary, what to do when perceived stress

primary cognitive appraisals

initial assessment of how stressful something is (alarm GAS)

secondary cognitive appraisals

if situation is deemed stressful, deciding what to do (resistance GAS)

GAS

general adaptation syndrome. alarm (primary cognitive appraisal), resistance (secondary cognitive appraisal), exhaustion (learned helplessness)

problem-focused coping

directly solve the issue, taking active steps to manage or alter the stressor (ex. hiring a strong lawyer, gathering evidence / witnesses, preparing clear defense strategy)

emotion-focused coping

ways to feel better, regulating and processing emotions that come from stressful situations rather than trying to change the stressor itself (ex. managing feelings, getting support from friends / family, reframing situations in a more positive way)

physical responses to stress

fight or flight response, muscle tension / pain, sleep disturbances, cardiovascular effects, immune system supression

type A personality

impatient, workaholic, perfectionist, restless, competitive

type B personality

calm, spontaneous, laid back, go w/ the flow

how do people w/ anxiety approach rationale?

have a cognitive approach, people w/ anxiety may make inaccurate primary appraisals

health effects of stress

heart disease / high BP, increased risk of heart attack, chronic anxiety / burnout

internal locus of control

“i am in charge of my life”, belief that your actions and decisions directly influence the outcomes in your life.

external locus of control

“outside forces control my life”, belief that external factors like fate, luck, or other people are responsible for the outcomes of one’s life.

PTSD (post traumatic stress disorder)

can occur after a major traumatic event, flashbacks, nightmares, intrusive memories, may feel guilty about the event

id

instincts, seeking immediate gratification of desires without regard for reality, consequences, or social rules

ego

reality, the rational mediator that balances the instinctual demands of id w/ the moral constraints of superego.

superego

morality, guides behavior according to internalized societal and parental standards, induces guilt when these standards are violated.

rationalization

justifying or making excuses for behaviors you realize are not appropriate

logotherapy

how you react to bad situations (humanistic)

repression

pushing it down

denial

pretend not real

projection

taking what you hate about yourself and giving it to someone else

reaction formation

thinking “you’re not one of them”

intellectualization

emotional issue —> thought issue

regression

moving back

displacement

reassign feelings to something else

sublimation

redirect negative impulses

DSM-V

diagnoses mental health problems

personal unconscious

part of the psyche that contains an individuals repressed or forgotten thoughts, feelings, memories, influencing behavior and personality

collective unconscious

part of the unconscious mind that is shared among all humans and are inherited human experiences, rather than shaped by personal experience

self-efficacy

ones individual belief in their ability to successfully execute actions required to achieve specific goals

self esteem

conditions of worth

self-actualization

the process of realizing and fulfilling one’s full potential, achieving personal growth, authenticity, and a meaningful life.

psychoanalytic

focus on the unconscious, result from situations such as childhood issues and fixations, repressed conflicts, imbalance between id, ego, and superego.

therapies involve getting to the unconscious roots of the problem in indirect means that require analysis (TAT, ink blots)

freud, hung, erickson, adler

freud

psychosexual stages of development, parts of the psych (id, ego, superego), defense mechanisms, fixations, anxiety, dream analysis, free association, talk therapy

jung

personal and collective unconscious, archetypes, synchronicity

archetypes

universal inherited patterns of thought, behavior, and symbolism that shape human behavior

synchronicity

meaningful coincidences that occur without a causal relationship, linking inner psychological states w/ external events

erickson

psychosocial stages of development

adler

effects of birth order, striving for superiority

effects of birth order

a child’s personality, self-perception, and life roles are shaped by their ordinal position in the family (the order in which they are born) and their dynamics with their siblings

behavioral

focus on observable behaviors as learned from experience, consequences of actions, learned through environmental stimuli, emphasis on actions and behaviors rather than interpretation

negative behaviors may be classically conditioned, operantly conditioned, or observational learning

therapies are designed to change associations, affect consequences, or practice new behaviors

pavlov, skinner, bandura

pavlov

classical conditioning (associations made between two stimuli), extinction of learned associations

skinner

operant conditioning (learned through reinforcement and punishment), shaping of new, complicated behaviors, extinction of learned actions

bandura

observational learning (imitating other’s behaviors), modeling, vicarious reinforcement / punishment, self efficacy

cognitive

focus on thought processes and thinking involved in problem solving and decision making

negative self-talk and catastrophic thinking result in irrational and exaggerated interpretations of situations

RET therapy is direct and designed to challenge irrational thoughts with more rational thinking

piaget, kohlberg

piaget

schemas, assimilations, accommodation as process in thinking, cognitive stages of development, thinking constructs such as egocentrism, centration, animism, conservation, object permanence

kohlberg

stages of morality development