bio exam 6/1/26

Endocardium

Inner lining of the heart chambers.

Myocardium

Cardiac muscle layer responsible for heart contractions.

Epicardium

Outer layer of the heart; also called the visceral pericardium.

Tricuspid Valve

Valve between the right atrium and right ventricle.

Bicuspid (Mitral) Valve

Valve between the left atrium and left ventricle.

Superior Vena Cava

Drains deoxygenated blood from the upper body into the right atrium.

Left Side of Heart

Carries oxygenated blood.

Left Ventricle

Pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta and body.

First Heart Sound (Lub)

Caused by closure of the AV valves.

Second Heart Sound (Dub)

Caused by closure of the semilunar valves.

P Wave

Atrial depolarization.

QRS Complex

Ventricular depolarization.

T Wave

Ventricular repolarization.

Cardiac Conduction Pathway

SA node → AV node → Bundle of His → Purkinje fibers.

Coronary Arteries

Deliver oxygenated blood to heart tissue.

Coronary Veins

Drain deoxygenated blood from heart tissue.

Pulmonary Veins

carry oxygenated blood towards the heart

Pulmonary Arteries

Carry deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs.

Aorta

Largest artery in the body.

Arteries

Usually carry oxygenated blood

Pulmonary Arteries

Carry deoxygenated blood.

Hepatic Vein

Drains deoxygenated blood to inferior vena cava

Hepatic Portal Vein

delivers nutrients to liver and deoxygenated blood from intestines to liver.

Internal Carotid Artery

Supplies blood to the brain.

External Carotid Artery

Supplies blood to the face

Foramen Ovale

Fetal opening allowing blood flow between right and left atria.

Arteries

Carry blood under high pressure.

Ductus Arteriosus

Fetal vessel connecting the pulmonary trunk to the aorta.

Aorta

Main artery leaving the left ventricle.

Arteries

Carry blood away from the heart.

Arterioles

Small branches of arteries leading to capillaries.

Arteries

Aorta,Arteries,Arterioles,

Venules

Small vessels that collect blood from capillaries.

Veins

Carry blood toward the heart.

Superior Vena Cava

Returns blood from upper body to heart.

Inferior Vena Cava

Returns blood from lower body to heart

Veins

Venules,veins,superior/inferior vena cava

Renal Arteries

Supply oxygenated blood to the kidneys.

Common Carotid Artery

Major artery supplying the head and neck

Aortic Arch

Curved portion of the aorta giving off major branches

Brachial Artery

Major artery of the upper arm

Abdominal Aorta

Portion of the aorta located in the abdomen

Airflow Pathway

Trachea → Bronchi → Bronchioles → Alveoli.

Thyroid Cartilage

“Adam’s Apple.”

Glottis

Opening between the vocal cords.

Epiglottis

Closes the airway during swallowing.

Pulmonary Capillaries

Site of gas exchange around alveoli.

Oxygen Diffusion

Oxygen moves from alveoli into the bloodstream.

Systemic Capillaries

Oxygen moves from blood into tissues.

Tidal Volume

Amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing.

Residual Volume

Air remaining in lungs after maximum exhalation.

Bronchioles

Small airways made mostly of smooth muscle.

Bronchodilation

Widening of airways caused by sympathetic stimulation (NE).

Bronchoconstriction

Narrowing of airways caused by parasympathetic stimulation (ACh).

Lungs covered by serous membrane

visceral pleura,parietal pleura

Carbon Dioxide

Mostly transported in blood as bicarbonate.

Respiratory Acidosis

Caused by hypoventilation

Respiratory Alkalosis

Caused by hyperventilation and excessive breathing

Nasopharynx

Contains auditory tube and pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids)

Oropharynx

Contains palatine tonsils.

Laryngopharynx

Shared passageway for food and air.

Surfactant

Reduces surface tension in the alveoli.

Hemoglobin

Transports oxygen in the blood.

Norepinephrine (NE)

Increases blood pressure.

Kidney Hormones

Erythropoietin and Renin.

Erythropoietin (EPO)

create more erythrocytes

Renin

Leads to vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure.

Internal Urethral Sphincter

Smooth muscle/ parasympathetic

External Urethral Sphincter

Skeletal muscle under voluntary control.

Abnormal Urine Findings

Glucose, protein, or blood cells

Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)

glucose reabsorption.

ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone)

Increases water reabsorption in the collecting duct.

Ureters

Transport urine from kidneys to bladder.

Aldosterone

Increases sodium (salt) reabsorption.

Ph

acidosis /alkalosis

Intracellular Fluid (ICF)

Fluid inside cells (cytoplasm/cytosol)

Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

plasma,lymph,interstitial,cerebrospinal fluid,aqueous/vitreous humor,synovial,serous

Plasma

Fluid portion of blood

Lymph

Fluid within lymphatic vessels

Interstitial Fluid

Fluid between body tissues

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

Fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

Aqueous(front)Vitreous(back)

fluid inside the eye

Synovial Fluid

Fluid within movable joints.

Serous Fluid

Fluid around internal organs.

Normal Blood pH

7.35–7.45.

Increased H⁺ or CO₂

Lowers pH.

Major Acids in the Body

Carbonic acid (CO₂), lactic acid, ketoacids.

Buffers

Resist changes in pH by absorbing excess H⁺.

Acidosis

CO₂ ↑, H⁺ ↑, pH ↓.

Alkalosis

CO₂ ↓, H⁺ ↓, pH ↑.

Dehydration

Output exceeds intake.

Water Intoxication

Intake exceeds output.

Edema

Excess fluid accumulation in tissues.